Ecostat

PREFACE 
 
Objective  of  Environment  Statistics  is  to  provide  information  about  the  environment, 
its  most  important  changes  over  time  and  across  locations,  and  the  main  factors  that 
influence  them.  Ultimately,  environment  statistics  aim  at  providing  high  quality  statistical 
information to improve knowledge of the environment, to support evidence-based policy and 
decision  making,  and  to  provide  information  for  the  general  public,  as  well  as  for  specific 
user  groups.  Environment  statistics  are  multidisciplinary  and  cross-cutting,  involving 
numerous sources and stakeholders    
Environment  statistics  aggregate,  synthesize  and  structure  environmental  and  other 
data according to statistical methods, standards and procedures. It is the role of environment 
statistics to process environmental data into meaningful statistics that describe the state and 
trends of the environment and the main processes affecting them. Not all environmental data 
are used in the production of environment statistics. The Framework for the Development of 
Environment Statistics (FDES) provides a framework that marks out environmental data that 
fall  within  its  scope  and  then  structures,  synthesizes  and  aggregates  them  into  meaningful 
statistics.  Environment  statistics  support  evidence  based  policy  making  by  enabling  the 
identification of environmental policy issues and the objective quantification of measures and 
impacts  of  policy  initiatives.  They  strengthen  assessments  through  quantitative  metrics, 
making  analyses  more  robust  through  the  use  of  timely  and  comparable  data.  The  main 
products  of  environment  statistics  are  detailed  tabulated  environment  statistics  series, 
environmental accounts and environmental indicators  
 
   As  an  endeavor  to  know  our  environment,  the  Department  of  Economics  and 
Statistics, Government of Kerala, has been bringing out the publication. This publication has 
been categorized into different chapters so as to make it easy for reference. The Department 
would like to express gratitude to all parties concerned for their co-operation and assistance 
in providing the required data. 
 
This  publication  is  an  outcome  of  earnest  effort  of  Publication  Division  under  the 
guidance  and  supervision  of  Sri.  P.  V.  Babu,  Addl.  Director  (General)  comments  and 
suggestions towards improving future reports would be greatly appreciated. 
 
Thiruvananthapuram,                  V. RAMACHANDRAN 
27.05.2017                        DIRECTOR GENERAL

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C O N T E N TS 
TABLE 
NO.   DESCRIPTIVE I TEM S   PAGE 
NO  
CHAPTER I  -   ENVIRONMENT AND ENVI RONMENT DEGRADATION  
 
1.1   Some Impacts of Development Activities on Environment   3  
1.2   Local, Regional and Global Effects of Pollution   4  
1.3   Some Major Pollutants and their Sources   5  
1.4   Air Pollution Sources   6  
1.5   Water Born Disease and their Causative Factors   7  
1.6   Pollutants and their related Health Hazards   8  
CHAPTER II  -   DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIR ONMENT STATISTICS IN   KERALA  
CHAPTER III  -   BIODIVERSITY OF KERA LA  
3 .1   Flora Statistics : Kerala and India   22  
3 . 2   Pr otected Areas   24  
3.3   Species in major group of plants  –   India & Kerala   27  
3 . 4   Species in Group of Animals   28  
3 . 5     Vertebrate   Diversity  of Kerala   29  
3.6   Endangered Forest Species in Kerala   40  
3 . 7   District wise Forest Area 2013 - 14   43  
3 . 8   Dision wise Fo rest Area of forest 2013 - 14   44  
3 . 9   Classification of Forest Area 2013 - 14   47  
3.10  
Classification of forest area according to utilization 2013 - 14   47  
3.11   District wise Ecologically Fragile Land Area   48  
3.12   District wise Forest Cover in Kerala 2013 - 14   49  
3.13   Comparitive situation of forest cover in Kerala   50  
3.14   Distribution of Plantation Area   51  
3.15   Species   wise plantaion area of KFDC   52  
3.16   Distribution of plantation Area 2013 - 14   53  
3.17   Procurement of Minor Forest products   54

3.18   Biosphere r eserves setup in Kerala   58  
3.19   List of Wildlife Sanctuaries,National Parks    59  
3.20   District Wise Mangrove Area   60  
3.21   Marine Fishing Village in Kerala   62  
3.22   Inland  Fishing  Villages in Kerala IN 2013 - 14   64  
3.23   District Wise Fish Production in Ker ala 2013 - 14   65  
3.24   Inland Fishery Resources of Kerala 2013 - 14   66  
3.25   Marine Fishery Resources of Kerala 2013 - 14   67  
CHAPTER   IV   -   ATMOSPHERE  
4.1   Air Pollution Monitoring Cities in Kerala   70  
4.2   District wise wind power installed capacity   73  
4.3   Month ly mean Relative humidity of observatories in Kerala 2013 - 14   74  
4.4   Monthly mean Maximum and Minimum Temperature of Observatories in Kerala 
2013 - 14   76  
4.5   Rainfall Distribution of Kerala for the year 2013 - 14   78  
4.6   Rainfall Details for the period of 201 3 - 14   79  
4.7   District wise Ann ual Average Rainfall 2013 - 14   80  
4.8   Annual Average rainfall data for 2013 - 14   81  
4.9  
Cumulative Achievement of Bio Gas Plant in Kerala 2013 - 14   82  
4.10  
Air Quality in Important Cities in Kerala   83  
4.11  
Ambient Air Quality Da ta 2013 - 14 Annual Average   84  
4.12  
Ambient Air Quality Standards in Respect of Noise   85  
4.13  
Effects of Noise Pollution in Human Health   86  
4.14  
Major Indicators showing operational efficiency of KSRTC   87  
4.15  
Category - wise Growth of Motor Vehicles in Ke rala 2013 - 14   88  
4.16  
Newly Registered Motor Vehicles in Kerala 2013 - 14   89  
4.17  
Total Registered Motor Vehicles in Kerala during 2013 - 14   91  
4.18  
Complying Status of Grossly Polluting Industries 2013 - 14   95  
4.19  
Generation installed Capacity 2013 - 14   99

4 .20  
Transmission & Distribution Lines 2013 - 14   99  
4.21  
Generation of Power at different Stations 2013 - 14   100  
4.22  
Electricity Generating Capacity of Kerala 2013 - 14   (MW)   101  
4.23  
Electricity Generating Capacity of Kerala  (MU)   101  
4.24  
Category wise sales   of energy in Kerala 2013 - 14   102  
4.25  
Electricity Generating Capacity, Maximum Demand and Load Factor   103  
4.26   The details of Indian standards for maximum permissible limits for   industrial 
effluent discharges   104  
4.27  
Average Gaseous composition of Dry  Air in the Troposphere   105  
4.28  
Summary of Health Effects of Basic Air Polutant   107  
C HAPTER V  -   LAND AND SOIL    
5.1     Gross cropped Area, Net Cropped Area and Cropping Intensity 2013 - 14   113  
5.2   Classification of Area on the Basis of Land Utilization 2013 - 14   115  
5. 3   Net Area Irrigated Source wise 2013 - 14   118  
5. 4   Gross Area under Irrigation (Crop wise ) 2013 - 14   119  
5. 5   Area and production of Important Crops in Kerala 2013 - 14   120  
5. 6   Area, Production, Productivity  of Plantation Crops 2013 - 14   121  
5. 7   Ch emical Utilization in Kerala    122  
5. 8   Soil Types in Kerala  -   District wise   124  
5. 9   Mineral wise details of Area covered by Mining Leases   127  
5. 10   Production and Royalty of Minerals in Kerala 2013 - 14   128  
5.1 1   Heavy Mineral Deposits in Kerala   130  
5.12   H eavy Mineral Deposits Oxidised and Unoxidized in Kerala   131  
5.13   Graphite deposits in Kerala  2013 - 14   134  
5.1 4   Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers in Kerala 2013 - 14   141  
5.1 5   Out turn of Major Forest Produce 2013 - 14     143  
5.16   Total consumtion of all ki nds of Wood during 2013 - 14    144  
5.17   Out turn of Timbers based on utility 2013 - 14   146  
5.1 8   Kerala’s Major Natural Disasters 2013 - 14  
150  
5.19   Frequently Occuring Natural Disasters in Kerala 2013 - 14  
151

C HAPTER VI  -   WATER    
6.1   Primary Water Quality Crit eria for bathing water   154  
6.2   Water Quality Criteria   155  
6.3   Storage levels in Reservoirs   156  
6.4   Name of Reservoirs   157  
6.5   Biological Water Quality Criteria   159  
6.6   Navigable Waterways in Kerala   160  
6. 7   District wise Brackish Water Area in Kerala   161  
6. 8   Fresh Water Lakes in Kerala   163  
6. 9   Backwaters in Kerala   164  
6.10   List of Major Rivers in Kerala   167  
6.1 1   Minimum and Maximum observed values of Water Quality Parameters at PWD 
sites and River Stations   169  
6. 12   Watersheds during 2012 - 13 and 20 13 - 14   175  
6. 13   District wise Distribution of Coast Line of Kerala   177  
6. 14  
Summary of Major Components of Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Kerala   180  
6. 15   Annual Ground Water Recharge 2010 - 11   181  
6. 16   Ground Water Monitoring Wells in Kerala   182  
6.17   Physical achievements under Ground Water Development Schemes 2013 - 14   184  
6.18   District wise polulation covered by Water Supply scheme 2013 - 14   185  
6.19   District and Category wise numbers of Water supply schemes KWA in operation 
2013 - 14    186  
6.20   District   wise details of water supply connections and street taps 2013 - 14   188  
6.21   District and Category wise on going Water supply schemes  during 2013 - 14   189  
6.22   District wise Distribution of KWA transferred to Local Bodies 2013 - 14   190  
6.23   Jalanidhi I & II  On Going water supply schemes 2013 - 14   191  
6.24   Jalanidhi I & II District wise population covered by water supply schemes 2013 - 14   192  
6.25  
Jalanidhi I & II water supply schemes 2013 - 14   193  
6.26  
Location of Drinking Water Sources   194  
6.27  
Drinking Water  awailability in Kerala  –   source wise   195

C HAPTER VII  -   HUMAN SETTLEMENTS    
7.1   Profile of Kerala State   198  
7.2   Current Population of Kerala   199  
7.3   Urban  –   Rural Number of Households, Total Population, Male, Female   200  
7.4   Density of Population by resi dence 2001 - 2011   201  
7.5   District wise Sex - ration from 1901 - 2011   202  
7.6   Population Rural and Urban break - up  –   2011 Census   203  
7.7   District - wise Population in 5 yrs age group   205  
7.8   District - wise Population in 5 yrs age group   206  
7.9   District - wise Pop ulation in 5 yrs age group   207  
7.10   District - wise Population in 5 yrs age group   208  
7.11   District - wise Population in 5 yrs age group   209  
7.12   District - wise Population in 5 yrs age group   210  
7.13   Age wise, Sex wise Population 2011 nad Mid year 2014   211  
7.14   District wise Fisherman Population in Kerala   213  
7.15   District wise percentage of Household by number of Dwelling Rooms   214  
7.16   District wise Infant Dealth Rates from 2010 - 13   216  
7.17   Live Births, Deaths, Infant Deaths and their Rates 2013 - 14   218  
7.18   Dsitrict wise Infant Mortality rate by Sex 2013 - 14   221  
7.19   Vital Rates at a glance Kerala 2013 - 14   222

Environment Statistics 
 
 
 
 
 
nvironment Statistics describe the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the 
state of the environment and it’s Interaction with human activities and natural events 
by  integrating  data  from  a  multitude  of  different  subject  areas  and  sources. 
Environment  statistics  is  an  emerging  statistical  field  in  official  statistics  in  most 
countries and  it  is indispensable for  evidence  based policies  and decision making  to 
support sustainable development.  
 
The  Environmental  Impact  Assessment  (EIA)  experience  in  India  indicates 
that  the  lack  of  timely  availability  of  reliable  and  authentic  environmental  data  has 
been  a  major  bottle  neck  in  achieving  the  full  benefits  of  EIA.  The  environments 
being a multi-disciplinary subject, a multitude of agencies are involved in collection of 
environmental  data.  However,  no  single  organization  in  India  tracks  available  data 
from  these  agencies  and  makes  it  available  in  one  place  in  a  form  required  by 
environmental  impact  assessment  practitioners.  Further,  environmental  data  is  not 
available in enhanced forms that improve the quality of the EIA. This makes it harder 
and  more  time-consuming  to  generate  environmental  impact  assessments  and 
receive  timely  environmental  clearances  from  regulators.  With  this  background,  the 
Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally 
managed  clearing  house  of  environmental  information  that  can  be  used  by  MoEF, 
project  proponents,  consultants,  NGOs  and  other  stakeholders  involved  in  the 
process  of  environmental  impact  assessment  in  India.  EIC  caters  to  the  need  of 
creating  and  disseminating  of  organized  environmental  data  for  various 
developmental initiatives all over the country .

CHAPTER-I 
-

CHAPTER- Ii  -

CHAPTER- Iii  -

CHAPTER- IV  -

CHAPTER-V  -

CHAPTER- VI  -

CHAPTER-VII

1 
  CHAPTER  - 
I  
Environment and Environment Degradation 
 
Introduction 
  nvironment  Statistics  Kerala  is  aimed  to  provide  statistical  information  about  the 
environment, environmental changes over time in different locations of the State and its impact. It 
al so  support  to  produce  quality  statistical  information  to  improve  awareness  of  the  environment, 
give data support to planners and decision makers in this field  and to provide  information for the 
general  public.  Statistical  information  collected  and  compiled  in  this  publication  is  based  on  the 
statistical  methods,  standards  and  procedures  developed  by  UNSD’s  Frame  work  for  the 
Development  of  Environment  Statistics  (FDES).  The  role  of  Environment  Statistics  is  to  process 
environmental  data  into  meaningful  statistics  that  bring  light  on  the  status  and  trends  of  the 
environment  and  its  impact.  Environment  regulates  the  life  of  the  organisms  including  human 
beings  that  interacting  systems of  physical,  biological  and  cultural  elements  which  are  interlinked 
both individually and collectively.  
Environment can be defined as the physical surrounding of  human being of whom there is 
a  part  on  which  he/she  is  depended  for  their  activities  like  physiological  functioning,  production 
and  consumption.  The  physical  environment  stretches  from  air,  water  and  land  to  natural 
resources like energy carriers, soil and plants, animals and ecosystems.  The deterioration of the 
environment  through  depletion  of  resources   such  as air, water  and  soil;  the  destruction  of 
ecosystems   and  its  impact.  It  is  defined  as  any  change  or  disturbance  to  the  environment 
perceived to be undesirable. 
Environment Degradation 
Environmental  degradation  is  the  deterioration  of  the  environment  through depletion  of 
resources  such as air, water  and  soil; the destruction of  ecosystems and the extinction of  wildlife. 
It  is  a  process  through  which  the  natural  environment  is  compromised  in  some  way,  reducing 
biological diversity and the general health of the environment. This process can be entirely natural 
in  origin,  or  it  can  be  accelerated  or  caused  by  human  intervocations. When  natural  habitats  are 
destroyed   or  natural  resources  are  depleted,  the  environment  is  degraded.  Efforts  to  counteract 
this  problem  include  environmental  protection   and environmental  resources  management .  Air,

2 
  water,  and  soil  are  all  resources  which  are  vulnerable  to  depletion  through  overuse,  Scarcity  of 
natural resources slow down the sustainable production activity and consumption activities which 
directly effect the economic development.  
Factors affecting Environment degradation: 
1.  Destruction  of  natural  resources  -  Soil  erosion,  land  salinization  and  the  loss  of  nutrients  are  the  major  result  of  agriculture  development  and  farming  activities.  Unscientific  agricultural 
practices,  over  exploitation  of  water  resources,  increased  rate  of  usage  of  fertilizers  and 
pesticides  and  increased  non agricultural  use  of  land  resulting  land  degradation  and  depleting 
resources.   
2.  Water  pollution  and  scarcity  –  Over  use  of  pesticides  and  fertilizers  and  unscientific  waste  disposals are the major source of contamination of water bodies. 
3.  Deforestation  -  Expansion  of  agriculture  land,  unplanned  expansion  of  cities,  industrialization,  tourism, etc contribute a lot for the shrinkage of forest area.  
4.  Air pollution -  Air  Pollution  creates  problems  of  acidification,  urban  air  quality  deterioration  and  chronic health problems. Urban air quality deterioration is one of the major concerns of present 
day urban life.  
Social factors: 
1.  Population  -  Population  impacts  in  the  environment  is  basically  due  to  the  excessive  use  of  natural  resources  and  unscientific  disposal  of  large  quantity  of  solid  and  liquid  wastes  which 
resulted in harmful environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity. 
2.  Poverty -  Environment  degradation  linked  with  poverty  mainly  due  to  pressure  extended  to      surrounding  environment  for  daily  livelihood.  Continueous  exploitation  of  natural  resources  to 
satisfy  the  livelihood  of  the  community  degraded  the  environment  to  an  extend  which  no 
longer  sustainable  and  lead  to  more  poverty  and  environmental  related  problems  such  as 
deforestation, poor sanitation, air and water pollution, draught , famine, etc.   
3.  Urbanization  -  Deterioration  of  air  and  water  quality,  generation  of  waste,  rural  to  urban  migration,  shortage  of  proper  sanitation  and  housing  facilities  together  contribute  to  urban 
poverty  and  environmental  degradation.    Direct  loss  in  vegetation,  biomass  from  areas  with 
high  probability  of  urban  expansion  contributes  about  5%  of  total  emission  from  tropical 
deforestation and land use change.

3 
   
Table : 1.1 Some Impacts of Development Activities on Environment  Development Activities   Major Impacts on Environment  
Forest  clearing  and  land 
resettlements   Climate change  and  resultant  outcome  of  extinction 
of  rare  species  of  flora  and  fau na,  creation  of 
condition for mosquito breeding leading to infectious 
diseases such as malaria, dengue etc.  
Shifting  cultivation  in  upland 
agriculture   Soil  erosion  in  upland  areas,  soil  fertility  declines 
due  to  shorter  cultivation  cycle.  The  ore  under 
na tural  forest  may  be  declined  fragmentation  of 
habitant,  disappeance  of  native  species  and 
invation  of  exotic  weeds  and  other  other  plants  are 
the ecological areas of flooding of low land areas.   
Agro  industries  create 
environmental  pollution  through 
disch arge of organic or hazardous 
waste to water bodies emission of 
gasses  that  affect  air  quality  and 
produce toxic substances.   Air  pollution  due  to  burning  of  biogases  as  fuel  in 
sugar mills,  large amount of highly polluting organic 
wastes, surface water poll ution  
Introduction  of  new  varieties  of 
cereals   Reduction  of  genetic  diversity  of  traditional 
monoculture  resulting  in  instability,  danger  of 
multiplication  of  local  strains  of  fungus,  bacteria  or 
virus on new variety  
Use of pesticides   Organism  develops  r esistance  and  new  control 
methods  are  needed  (e.g.  in  malaria,  widespread 
use of dieldrin as a prophylactic agent against pests 
of  oil  palms  made  the  problem  worse),  creation  of 
complex  and  widespread  environment  problems. 
The  pesticides  used  in  agricultur e  sometimes  go 
into  food  chain  or  in  water  bodies  which  may  result 
in harmful health hazards.  
Timber extraction   Degrades  land,  destroys  surface  soil,  reduces 
production potential of future forests.  
Urbanisation and industrialization   Concentration of popu lation in urban centers makes 
huge demands on production in rural areas and put 
pressures on land, air and water pollution.  
Water  resource  projects,  e.g. 
Dam, extensive irrigation   Human  settlement  &  resettlement,  spread  of 
waterborne  diseases,  reduction  o f  fisheries, 
siltation,  physical  changes  e.g.  temperature, 
humidity.

4 
   
 
Table : 1.2  Local, Regional and Global effects of Pollution  Local Effects   Regional   Over Marine Water 
and Continents   Changes the climate 
due to ozone 
depletion and the 
greenhouse effe ct.  
   Heavy metals in 
ai r, soil, water 
and plants, eg. 
f rom industrial 
emissions  
     Discharges  
     Noise  
   Smell  
   A ir pollutions  
   Urbanization      Eutrophication  
 
   Contam inants in 
the soil & wate  
 
   Landscape 
changes due to 
mining or 
agriculture      Eutrophication  
 
     Acidificat ion  
 
   Environment 
Contamination due 
to Radioactivity      Climate Change  
 
   Ozone Depletion

5 
   
Table: 1.3  Some Major Pollutants and their Sources  
Pollutant   Source  
Carbon monoxide  
Incomplete fuel combustion (e.g. two/four stroke engines)  
Sulphur dioxide  
Emissi ons by vehicles  
Suspended particulate matter  
Smoke from domestic, industrial and vehicular sources.  
Oxides of nitrogen   Fuel  combustion  of  motor  vehicles,  emission  from  power 
stations and industrial furnaces  
Volatile hydrocarbons   Partial  combustion  of  ca rbonaceous  fuels  (two  stroke 
engines, industrial processes, disposal of solid wastes).  
Oxidants and ozone   Emissions from motor vehicles, photochemical reactions of 
nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons  
Lead  
Emissions from motor vehicles, Battery indu stries

6 
   
 
Table: 1.4  Air Pollution Sources 
 
 
 
 
   
 
  A
A
A I
I
I R
R
R  
 
  P
P
P O
O
O L
L
L L
L
L U
U
U T
T
T I
I
I O
O
O N
N
N  
 
  S
S
S O
O
O U
U
U R
R
R C
C
C E
E
E S
S
S  
 
  Major   
Sources  
  Mobile 
Sources  
  Natural  
Sources  
 
Chemical Plant  
Refineries  
Power Plants  
Paper Mills  
Metallurgical 
Industry  
Cement Plants  
Stone Crushers  
Construction 
Activities  
  Automobiles  
Railways  
Airways  
  Natural   Dust 
Storm  
Volcanoes  
Sea Salt 
Dispersion

7 
   
Table : 1.5  Water Born Disease s   and their Causative Factors  
 
Name of the Disease   Causative Organism  
1 .   Water - borne diseases Bacterial  
 
       Typhoid   Salmonella typhi  
        Gastroenteritis   Vibrio cholerae  
       Paratyphoid   Slmondlla parayphi  
       Cholera   Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli  
       Bacterial dysentery   Variety of Escherichia coli  
 
Viral  
 
        Infectious hepatitis   Hepatitis - A - virus  
        Pliomycetis   Polio - virus  
       Diar rhea Diseases   Rota - virus, Norwalk agent,  
       Other symptoms of enteric       
    Diseases  
  Other  virus  Echono - virus, 
Coxsackie  –   virus  
Protozoan  
 
       Amoebic dysentery   Entamoebahystolitica  
   
2. Water - washed diseases  
 
       Scabies   Various skin fungus specie s  
       Trachoma   Trachoma infecting eyes  
       Bacillary dysentery   E. coli  
3. Water - based diseases  
 
       Schistosomiasis   Schistosoma sp.  
       Guinea worm   Guinea worm  
4.  Infection  through  water  related    
       insect vectors  
 
       Sleeping sickness   Trapanosoma t hrough   tsetse   fly  
       Malaria   Plasmodium through Anaphelis  
5.  Infection  primarily  due  to  defective   
      sanitation  
 
       Hookworm   Hook worm, Ascaris

8 
   
Table :1.6  Pollutants and their related Health hazards   
Pollutants    
Health Effects  
 
Carbon  Monoxide  (from  gasoline 
cars, 2 - wheelers, 3 - wheelers)      Fatal in large doses  
   Aggravates heart disorders  
   Affects central nervous systems  
   Impairs oxygen carrying capacity of blood  
Nitrogen  Oxides  (from  diesel 
vehicles)      Irritation  of respiratory tract  
 
Ozone      Eye, nos e and throat irritation  
   Risk  asthmatics,  children  and  those     
             involved heavy exercise  
 
Lead (from petrol vehicles)      Extremely toxic  
   Affects nervous system and blood  
   Can impairmental development of children  
   Cause hypertension  
Hydrocarbons  (Main ly  from  2 -
wheelers and 3 - wheelers)      Drowsiness, eye irritation, coughing  
Benzene      Carcinogenic  
 
Aldehydes      Irritation  of  eyes,  nose  and  throat,   
             sneezing,  coughing,  nausea,  breathing   
             difficulties  
   Carcinogenic in animals  
Polycyclic  Aromatic  Hydro  Carbons 
PAH (from diesel vehicles)      Carcinogenic

9 
  CHAPTER  - 
II 
Development of Environment Statistics in Kerala 
 
Introduction   erala State spread over a  total area of 38,863 Km
2
, population of more than 33 million 
lie  in  latitude  between  8 0
18’  and  12 0
48’  and  longitude  between  74 0
52’  and  77 0
22’.   The  long 
coastline  of  580  Km  with  a intricate  system  of  backwaters  along  the  coast.    The  tropical  moist 
forest  is  Western  Ghat  is  highly  undulating  terrain  and  the  tropical  monsoon  climate  make  the  
state  a  unique  geographical  and  environmental  entity.    The  people  have  a  high  level  of  literacy 
rate  of  93.91  and  are  generally  conscious  of  healthcare  and  hygienic  practices  resulting  in  high 
level  of  life  expectancy,  low  population  growth  and  low  infant  mortality  rate.    The  undesirable  act 
of  development measures  carried  out  without  proper  environmental  considerations  and concerns 
have left indubitable impacts on the environment.  
Infrastructure and Environment Statistics Division 
According  to  the  recommendation  of  the  19 th
  COCSSO,  it  is  decided  to  constitute  an 
Infrastructure  and  Environment  Statistics  Division  in  this  Office.   
Hence  I  &  ES  Division  came  to 
effect  on  the  lines  of  Environment  Statistics  guidelines  brought  out  by  Central  Statistical  Office, 
Ministry  of  Statistics  and  Programme  Implementation,  Govt.  of  India.  So  far  th ree  reports  have 
be en released from this division and Environment Statistics 2013-14  is the fourth publication from 
this  division.  The  data  prese nted  in  this  report  are  collected  from  various  Agencies  and 
Departments  working  for  the  protection  of  environment  or  monitor  the  level  of  impart  on 
environment. 
The Environment Statistics is an annual publication of this division covering the one of bio -
diversity  of  the  State,  Atmosphere,  Rithosphere,  Hydrosphere  and  Human  Intervention  and 
related stress on the environment.   
Kerala State Pollution Control Board  
Kerala  State  Pollution  Control  Board  has  been  constituted  on  12.9.1974  by  the  Govt.  of 
Kerala for prevention and Control of Water Pollution. It was the first State Board constituted in the 
country under the Water Act in 1984 . The Kerala State Pollution Control Board entrusted with the

10 
  implementation  of  the  Air  Act  also.    Administrative  control  over  the  Board  is  vested  with  the 
En
vironmental  Department  of  the  Government  of  Kerala  and  the  Ministry  of  Environment  and 
Forest,  Government  of  India.  The  activities  of  the  State  Boards  are  co  ordinate d  by  Central 
Pollution Control Board. 
   1. The Water Act (Prevention & Control of Pollution)   
  
Plan  a  comprehensive  program  for  the  prevention,  control  or  abatement  of  pollution  of 
streams and wells in the State  and to secure the execution thereof; 
   Advise  the  State  Government  on  any  matter  concerning  the  prevention,  control  or 
abatement of water pollution; 
   Collect  and disseminate  information  relating  to  water  pollution  and  the  prevention, control 
or abatement thereof; 
  
Encourage, conduct  and participate  in  investigations  and  research  relating  to  problems  of 
water  pollution  and  prevention,  control  or  abatement  of  water  pollution; 
to  collaborate  with  the  Central  Board  in  organising  the  training  of  persons  engaged  or  to 
be engaged in programs relating to prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and 
to organise mass education programs; 
  
Inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade 
effluents  and  to  review  plans,  specifications  or  other  data  relating  to  plants  set  up  for  the 
treatment  of  water,  works  for  the  purification  there  of  and  the  system  for  the  disposal  of 
sewage or trade effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by this 
Act lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for 
the  quality  of  receiving  waters  (not  being  water  in  an  interstate  stream)  resulting  from  the 
discharge of effluents and to classify waters of the State. 
  2.   The Water Cess Act  (Prevention & Control of Pollution)   
   Receive water consumption returns from persons liable to pay cess; 
   Assess the cess payable by the concerned person carrying on any special industry or local 
authority; 
   Allow rebate on the cess payable by any person carrying on any industry or local authority 
who install requisite plant for treatment of sewage or trade effluent; 
   Collect cess from the assessees.

11 
   
3.  The Air Act (Prevention & Control of Pollution)   
  
Plan  a  comprehensive  programme  for  prevention,  control  and  abatement  of  air  pollution 
and to secure the execution thereof; 
   Advise  the  State  Government  on  any  matter  concerning  prevention,  control  or  abatement 
of air pollution.; 
   Collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution; 
   Collaborate  with  the  Central  Board  in  organising  the  training  of  persons engaged or  to  be 
engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement  of air pollution and to 
organise mass education programmes relating thereto; 
   Inspect,  at  all  reasonable  times,  any  control  equipment,  industrial  plant  or  manufacturing 
process  and  to  give,  by  order,  such  directions  to  such  persons  as  may  be  considered 
necessary to take steps for prevention, control or abatement of air pollution; 
  
Inspect  air  pollution  control  areas  at  such  intervals  as  it  may  think  necessary,  assess  the 
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pol lution 
in such areas 
  
Lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regarding to the standards for 
the  quality  of  air  laid  down  by  the  Central  Board,  standards  for  emission  of  air  pollutants 
into  the  atmosphere  from  industrial  plants  and  automobiles  or  for  the  discharge  of  any air 
pollutant  into  atmosphere  from  any  other  source  whatsoever  not  being  a  ship  or  an 
aircraft, provided that different standards for emission may be laid down under this clause 
for  different  industrial  plants  having  regard  to  the  quantity  and  composition  of  emission  of 
air pollutant into the atmosphere from such industrial plants. 
  4.   The Environment (Protection) Act  
   Implement  measures  for  the  protection  and  improvement  of  environment  and  the 
prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property; 
   Remedial measures to prevent or mitigate environmental pollution in case of accidents; 
    Inspections to check compliance and to collect or seize evidence thereof; 
   Collect samples of air, water, soil or other substances; 
   Service as Environmental Laboratory; 
   Standardised  methods  for  sampling  and  analysis  of  various  types  of  environmental 
pollutants; 
   Analyse samples sent by empowered officers;

12 
  
  Carry out investigations to lay down standards, to monitor and to enforce standards; 
   Carry out any other entrusted function; 
   Take cognisance of offences. 
Hazardous Wastes Rules   
   Process  applications  for  and  to  issue/refuse/renew  authorisation  for  collection,  reception, 
treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes; 
   Monitor compliance with the provisions and conditions of authorisation; 
   Process and forward to the Ministry of Environment & Forests applications for imports; 
   Review matters pertaining to identification and notification of disposal sites. 
The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, particularly  
  
Enforce directions  and procedures  in  respect  of  isolated  storage of  hazardous  chemicals, 
regarding; 
  
Co-operate in preparation of on-site emergency plans; 
   Enforce  directions  and  procedures  on  import  of  hazardous  chemicals  on  information 
regarding import; 
   Issue  direction  to  importer  to  take  appropriate  safety  measures,  including  stoppage  of 
import, if necessary; 
   Informing concerned port authority on safety measures; 
   Serve improvement notice on persons contravening the Rules. 
Rules  for  the  Manufacture,  Use,  Import,  Export  and  Storage  of  Hazardous  Micro -
organisms, Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells  
  
Inspect,  investigate  and  take  punitive  action  on  behalf  of  the  State  Biotechnology  Co -
ordination Committee in case of violations; 
   Supervise,  on  behalf  of  the  Genetic  Engineering  Approval  Committee,  implementation  of 
the terms and conditions of approvals granted by the Committee.

13 
  The Chemical Accidents Rules (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) 
 
   To serve in the State Crisis Group; 
   To serve in the District Crisis Groups which are the apex bodies in the respective areas to 
deal with major chemical accidents and to provide expert guidance for handling   chemical 
accidents. 
The Biomedical Waste Rules  (Management and Handling)  
   Receive  from  institutions  generating,  collecting,  receiving,  storing,  transporting,  treating, 
disposing and/or handling biomedical wastes applications for authorisation, to process the 
same and issue/ refuse/ renew/ cancel/ suspend authorisation; 
  
Compile and furnish to the Central Pollution Control Board annual reports from occupiers /  
operators; 
   Inspect and verify facilities and records; 
   Receive and act upon reports of accidents. 
 
The Plastics Manufacture, Sale s and Usage Rules   
  
Receive and process applications for registration for manufacture of virgin/recycled or both 
plastic carry bags and containers and to issue/refuse/renew/cancel registration. 
The Municipal Solid Wastes Rules (Management and Handling)  
   Monitor  compliance  with  standards  on  ground  water,  ambient  air,  leachate  quality, 
compost quality and incineration; 
  
Receive  and  process  application  for  authorisation  for  setting  up  waste  processing  and 
disposal facility and to issue / refuse / renew / cancel authorisatio n; 
   Furnish annual reports to the Central Pollution Control Board. 
The Noise Pollution Rules (Regulation and Control)  
   Regulate and control noise of industrial origin; 
   Monitor ambient sound levels; 
   Advise the State Government on pollution control.

14 
  The Batteries Rules (Management and Handling)
 
  
Receive  and  verify  half  yearly  returns  on  sale  of  new  batteries  and  collection  of  old 
batteries; 
   Receive and verify half yearly returns on sale and collection of batteries by dealers; 
   Receive and verify annual returns from recyclers of used batteries; 
   Receive and verify half yearly returns form bulk consumers of batteries; 
   Receive and verify half yearly returns by auctioneers of used batteries; 
   Ensure compliance with the Rules; 
   File annual compliance status report to the Central Pollution Control Board. 
The EIA notification  
  
Receive request for environment public hearing; 
   Notify the details of public hearing; 
  
Assist  District  Collector  for  public  hearing  and  to  furnish  report  thereof  to  the  Ministry  of 
Environmental and Forests. 
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991  
   Make  application  to  court  to  restrain  owner  under  section  13(1)  from  handling  hazardous 
substances, to  implement  the  order  of  the  Court  under  section  13(3)(b)  and  to  recover  
cost thereof  under section 13(4). 
   Rece ive and act upon notice under section 18(b) of intention to make complaint to Court  
Western Ghats Development Programme 
 
The Western Ghat region of Kerala (Sahyadri) stretches over 450 km (28.12%) out of the 
total  length  of  1600  km  and  is  spread  over  80  Block  Panchayats  and  537  Grama 
Panchayats.  31  Taluks  in  the  State  with  a  total  geographical  area  of  28008  sq.km   and 
around 50% of the State’s population is  in the Western Ghat  region. Western Ghats plays 
an important role acting as barrier to southeast monsoons causing substantial rainfall over 
the  hills  (more  than  3000  mm  annually)  and  the  “Sahyadri”  gives  birth  to  all  the  44  rivers 
flowing  through  the  State  and  sustains  rich  natural  forests  and  minerals.  This  region  is  a 
treasure of plants and animals and is declared as one of the bio diversity hot spots in  the 
world.

15 
  
  The  Western  Ghats  in  Kerala  have  two  major  segments,  southern  segm ent  south  of 
Palakkad  Gap  and  northern  segment  beyond  the  gap  extending  up  to  the  Kodugu 
boundary.  There  are  three  sections  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  Western  Ghats  falling  within 
Kerala viz. the Pambar- Chinnar basin, the Attappady Plateau drained by Bhavani, and the 
Wayanad  section  drained  by  Kabani.  The  Western  Ghats  that  rise  from  low  altitude  of 
about  70  m  MSL  extend  up  to  2000m  MSL  on  an  average  on  the  eastern  boundary. 
Anamudy is the highest peak with an altitude of 2690m MSL.  
  Western  Ghats  that  supports   a  wide  range  of  forest  types  ranging  from  tropical  wet 
evergreen  forests  to  grasslands,  some  4000  species  of  flowering  plants
  with  high  degree 
of  endemism  and  rich  fauna  with  endemism  ranging  from  11%  to  78%  among  different 
groups.  Consequently,  Western  Ghats  constitutes  not  only  one  of  the  hotspots  of 
biodiversity in the world, but also one among world’s eight hottest hotspots.
  

  The  life  supporting  and  biodiversity  rich  ecosystems  of  Western  Ghats  are  threatened 
today due to habitat pressures.
  
Western  Ghats  Development  Programme,  a  centrally  sponserd  scheme   funded  by 
Government  of  India  under  the  Hill  and  Railfall  area  development  scheme  to  protect  the  rich 
biodiversity  in  this  region  through  generation  of  the  forest  cover  with  People’s  Participation,  Eco-
Preservation, Natural Resource Management and  Watershed Development programme. 
 
Department of Environment  
  Department  of  Environment  Statistics  is  responsible  for  the  coordination  of  activities  of 
different  departments,  authorities,  and  local  bodies  in  the  State  relating  to  environment  and 
implementation of the Environment Policy of the State.  The department will  focus on prom otional 
aspects  for  the  protection  and  conservation  of  the  environment  with  the  help  of  the  concerned 
government  departments,  research  institutes,  regulatory  bodies,  local  bodies  and  reputed  non -
governmental organizations, researchers and academicians.

16 
  National Centre for Earth Science Studies 
 
National Centre for Earth Science Studies  (NCESS) is the leading centres of excellence in 
the  field  of  Earth  System  Science  in  the  country,  and  is  functional  for  the  past  36  years.  The 
CESS,  as  a  scientific  establishment  carried  out  extensive  research  and  development  work  in 
major  components  of  Geosphere,  Hydrosphere,  and  Atmosphere.  The  approach  and 
a ccomplishments  of  CESS,  in  understanding  and  addressing  the  geological  evolution  of  south 
India, complexities of the coastal processes and natural hazards, natural resources management 
have all along been consistent with the national R&D priorities in Earth Sciences and thrust areas 
of  the  Ministry  of  Earth  Sciences  (MoES).  CESS  has  made  important  contributions  towards  
understanding the complexities of coastal processes including the mud banks which is unique for 
the south-west coast of India.  
 
Data  generated  under  this  programme  found  useful  for  various  planning  purposes  at  the 
State  level  and  also  to  pursue  systematic  studies  under  various  geo-environmental  conditions. 
Data  base  has  been  generated  under  the  broad  resource  categories  of  land,  land  use,  water, 
forest, infrastructure, and population and allied activities. Water quality analysis  also taken up for 
selected rivers and back waters for pollution monitoring and data base development. Land system 
and  drainage  pattern  analyses  are  based  on  maps,  images  and  direct  field  measurements. 
Earthquake  monitoring  and  study  of  neo-tectonics  are  in  hazard  studies.  Physical  and  social 
vulnerability  analyses  are  taken  up  for  hot  spots  in  the  Western  Ghats  and  selected  coastal 
stretch to develop management plans. Data on climatic parameters and greenhouse gases (GHG) 
will  be  acquired  by  installing  field  stations,  one  along  coast  and  another  at  Munnar  in  Western 
Ghats  region.  Application  of  remote  sensing  will  cover  geological  studies,  corals  and  agricultural 
operations. 
 
Kerala State Biodiversity Board   
Kerala  State  Biodiversity  Board  has  function  as  a  centre  for  applied  researc h  for 
conservation  of  Kerala’s  biological  diversity.  The  centre  is  being  established  for  collection, 
collation,  management,  analysis,  and  dissemination  of  data  on  biological  diversity.  The  research 
centre  will  provide  scientific  support  to  Kerala  State  Biodiversity  Board  in  decision  making  on 
matters  related  to  biodiversity,  so  as  to  enable  the  Board  to  advise  the  State  Government  on 
salient  environmental  and  conservation  issues.  The  centre  will  also  enable  the  Board  for

17 
  translating  the  knowledge  generated  for  sustainable  development  and  access  to diverse  species 
enables  diversification  of  livelihood  through,  planting  multiple  crops  and  thus  enabling  food 
production  throughout  the  year,  or  engaging  in  alternative  income-generating  activities.  The 
availability of diverse resources also allows different genders, cultural or age groups to engage in 
and benefit from the resources. 
Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (JNTBGRI) 
Jawaharlal  Nehru  Tropical  Botanic  Garden  and  Research  Institute  (JNTBGRI)  formerly 
known as Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI) was founded in 1979 with the 
objective of establishing a Conservatory Botanic Garden of tropical plant resources in general and 
of  the  country  and  the Kerala  state  in  pa rticular.  It  also  undertakes  research  programmes  for  the 
sustainable  utilization  of  these  resources.  The  Government  of  Kerala  established  the  Institute  as 
an  autonomous  research  and  development  organisation  in  1979.  In  1996,  the  Saraswathi 
Thangavelu  Exten sion  Centre  of  JNTBGRI  housing  the  bioinformatics  component  became 
functional.  During  the  year  2003,  JNTBGRI  was  brought  under  the  newly  formed  society,  Kerala 
State  Council  for  Science,  Technology  and  Environment  (KSCSTE),  which  is  registered  as  a 
society  under  the  Science  and  Technology  Department,  Government  of  Kerala.  The  institute  is 
located in 300 acres of natural forestland, right  in the lap of the Western Ghats of Palode, 40 km 
northeast  to  Thiruvananthapuram  city,  on  the  Thiruvananthapuram -  Shenkot tah  state  highway. 
The Extension Centre is situated at Puthenthoppe, 15 km north of Thiruvananthapuram city, near 
the sea coast.  
Conservation  and  sustainable  utilisation  of  the  plant  biodiversity  advance  knowledge, 
enjoyment  and  conservation  of  plants  through  excellence  in  biodiversity  research  management, 
horticulture displays and educational. JNTBGRI is reckoned as the biggest conservatory garden in 
Asia with over 50,000 accessions belonging to 4000 species. Highly coordinated multidisciplinary 
research  is  undertaken  in  the  areas  of  Plant  Taxonamy,  Conservation  Biology,  Ethnobotany  and 
Bioprospecting (Biotechnological, Pharmocological and Phytochemical).  
National Institute of Oceanography 
  The  National  Institute  of  Oceanography  Kochi  Regional  Centre  is  one   of  the  37 
Constituent Laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Centres (CSIR) New 
Delhi.  CSIR-NIO was established on 1966 following the international Indian Ocean Expedition  in 
the  1960s.    In  addition  of  basic  research  of  observing  and  understanding  special  oceanographic

18 
  characteristics  of  Indian  Ocean,  the  institute  also  carries  out  Oceanographic  data  collection, 
environmental  impact  assessment,  and  modelling  to  predict  environmental  impact.    The  Institute 
also  provide  consultancy  on  a  number  of  issues  including  marine  environmental  protection  and 
coastal  zone  regulations.  With  the  largest  collection  of  ocean  scientists  in  the  country,  and 
equipped with suitable ocean research infrastructure, CSIR-NIO serves as an advanced centre  of 
education in ocean sciences. It has a School of Oceanography under the Academy of Scientific & 
Innovative Research (AcSIR). In addition, it is a recognized centre for doctoral research by a large 
number of universities. 
Marine  biodiversity  -  The  Indian  Ocean  is  a  region  of  very  high  biological  diversity  has 
been  analyzing  and  documenting  diversity  of  all  forms  of  life  –  microbes,  plants  and  animals  - 
from  various  marine  ecosystems.  National  Institute  of  Oceanography  has  carried  out 
investigations to unravel interactions between the environment and organisms and the key area of 
its  research  is  the  impact  of  natural  and  human-induced  stresses  such  as  deoxygenating, 
eutrophication  and  acidification  on  biogeochemistry  and  ecosystems  in  fresh   water  and  marine 
environments.  National  Institute  of  Oceanography  is  actively  engaged  in  monitoring  the health  of 
Indian coastal environs.

19 
   
Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies (KUFOS) 
 
  Kerala  University  of  fisheries  and  Ocean  Studies  (KUFOS)  is  an  autonomous  inst itution 
established  on  20 th
 November  2010.  KUFOS  is  the  first  fisheries  university  in  the  country.    The 
head  quarters  of  KUFOS  at  Panangad  12  k m  away  from  Kochi  City.  It  provides  high  quality 
instructional programmes in fisheries, Ocean Sciences and a
llied subjects.    
C ent ral Marine Fisheries Research Institute  
Government of India established the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi on 
3 rd
  February  1947  under  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Farmers  Welfare  and  later  it  joined  the 
ICAR in 1967. During the course of over 65 years the Institute has emerged as a leading tropical 
marine fisheries research institute in the world. CMFRI devoted its research attention towards the 
estimation  of  marine  fisheries  landings  and  effort,  taxonomy  of  marine  organisms  and  the  bio-
economic  characteristics  of  the  exploited  stocks  of  finfish  and  shellfish.  This  research  effort 
contributed  significantly  to  India’s  marine  fisheries  development  from  a  predominantly  artisanal, 
sustenance fishery till the early sixties to that of complex, multi-gear, multi-species fisheries. 
Cochin University School of Environmental Studies  The  School  of  Environmental  Studies,  a  Centre  for  higher  learning  dedicated  to 
environmental protection and sustainable development conceptual ized in 1980 was established in 
1983  to  serve  the  cause  of  well
- being  of  the  society  by  imparting  knowledge  and  by  providing 
trained  manpower  and  appropriate  environmental  technology.  To  achieve  these  objectives,  the 
School  offers  a  carefully  designed  regu
larly  updated  curriculum,  competence- based  consultancy 
and  reaches  out  to  the  community  with  socially  relevant  extension  programmes.  Doctoral 
programme  is  offered  in  various  facets  of  Environmental  Science  and  Technology  including 
Environmental  Biology,  Ch emistry,  Microbiology,  Meteorology  and  Toxicology.  The  School  has 
state
-of -the - art  laboratories  in  Environmental  Chemistry,  Environmental  Biology,  Environmental 
Toxicology,  Environmental  Virology,  Environmental  Biotechnology,  Environmental  Microbiology, 
an d  Remote  Sensing  Environmental  Resource  and  Disaster  Management.  The  School  of 
Environmental  Studies  give  equal  importance  to  Research,  Teaching  and  Extension  in 
Environmental  Science  and  Technology  with  the  motto  of  Environmental  protection  for  a 
sustaina
ble development aiming at a better tomorrow.

20 
   
Activities 
Region  based  biodiversity  conservation  movement  with  the  help  of  Life  science 
Departments of  local  colleges.  Activity  includes  biodiversity  registry  development,  examination  of 
local  agricultural  and  industrial  activities  and  any  anthropogenic  activity  which  would  affect  the 
existing  biodiversity,  develop  alternative  strategy  to  protect  the  ecosystem,  creation  and 
awareness  among  the  local  people  on  the  need  of  protecting  the  biodiversity  for  holistic  
development. This also includes propagation of endangered species of plants and animals also. 
 
Protection  of  Mangrove  ecosystem  of  Kerala:  Kerala  was  well  known  of  its  diverse 
mangrove plant species which formed the nursery ground of finfish and shell fis hes and protected 
the  coastal  zone  from  erosion.  This  magnificent  ecosystem  is  vanishing.  A  comprehensive 
programme to protect the system by bringing under mangrove aforestation more regions with the 
species lost from the region has been planned. 
  Protection  of  the  rivers  of  Kerala:  Kerala  is  blessed  with  45  rivers.  Tragically  several  of 
them  are  dieing.  Immediate  action  has  to  be  taken  to  revive  them  with  people's  participation.  A 
comprehensive package is under development incorporating the NGOs who have been working in 
this realm for a long period. 
 
National  Centre  for  Aquatics  Animal  Health  (formerly  Centre  for  Fish  Disease  Diagnosis 
and  Management)  incepted  in  January  2000  under  the  faculty  of  Environmental  Studies, 
pioneered  the  promotion  of  sustainable  aquaculture  using  the  latest  developments  in  Marine 
Biotechnology  in  India.  Motto  of  the  centre  is  relentless  effort  for  the  Protection  of  Health  of 
Aquatic  Animals  and  their  Environment  and  it  continually  endeavors  to  transfer  the  outputs  of 
research  directly  to  the  end  users,  the  aquarists.  The  research  and  development  activities  of  the 
centre  use  cutting  edge  technology  to  bring  in  novel  innovations  for  the  development  of 
sustainable aquaculture in India.

21 
   
CHAPTER  -  III 
Biodiversity of Kerala 
  iodiversity  reflects  the  number,  variety  and  variability  of  living  organisms  and  how 
these are change from one location to another and over time. Biodiversity includes diversity within 
species,  between species, and between ecosystems. Biodiversity  is essential for  the  ecosystems 
which  provide  regulating  and  supporting  services  for  life  in  our  planet.  Air,  water  and  food  have 
been  naturally  regulated  through  a  huge  range  of  physical,  chemical  and  biological  interactions. 
The  dispersal  and  dilution  of  pollutants,  steady  supply  of  clean  water,  protection  of  coast, 
prevention  of  flooding,  regulation  of  climate  through  locking  away  of  carbon,  etc.  The  supporti ng 
services  like  the  natural  environment  provides  income  from  tourism,  food,  water  and  fuel.  Wise 
and  sustainable  use  of  environment  replace  and  replenish  resources.  Its  role  goes  beyond 
ensuring the availability of raw materials to include security, resiliency, social relations, health and 
freedoms and choices.  
Plant  and  animal  biodiversity  as  a  national  and  global  resource  is  extremely  valuable, 
inadequately  documented  and  often  waste.  The  preservation  of  biodiversity  is  both  a  matter  of 
investment  and  insurance  to  sustain  and  improve  agricultural,  forestry  and  fisheries  productions 
also  act  as  a  buffer  against  harmful  environmental  changes,  provide  raw  materials  for  scientific 
and  industrial innovations, and safe guard transferring biological richness to future generations. 
In the atmosphere, gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, and methane act 
like  the  glass  roof  of  a  greenhouse  by  trapping  heat  and  warming  the  planet.  These  gases  are 
called  greenhouse  gases.  The  natural  levels  of  these  gases  are  being  supplemented  by 
emissions  resulting  from  human  activities,  such  as  the  burning  of  fossil  fuels,   farming  activities 
and  land-use  changes.  As  a  result,  the  Earth’s  surface  and  lower  atmosphere  are  warming,  and 
this rise in temperature is accompanied by many other changes.  
       There is ample evidence that climate change affects biodiversity. Accord ing to the Millennium 
Ecosystem Assessment, climate change is likely to become one of the most significant drivers of 
biodiversity loss by the end of the century. Climate change is already forcing biodiversity to adapt 
either through shifting habitat, changing life cycles, or the development of new physical traits.

22 
  Plant Diversity in Kerala 
The Western  Ghats  region  of  the  state  is  one of  the  25  biodiversity  hotspots  in  the  whole 
world.  The  researchers  in  the  field  identified  more  than  4,500  species  of  flowering  plants  in  the 
state  and  out  of  which  abo ut  1,500  taxa  are  endemic  in  nature.  There  is  also  equally  rich  fauna 
belt  in the state. The diversity of  lower plants and animal groups, and the marine flora and fauna 
in  particular  even  though  not  fully  known,  is  remarkably  rich  in  the  state.  An  earlier  estimate  had 
shown that there are about 10,035 plant species indigenous to the state. The available total floral 
wealth of the state is given below.  
Table: 3.1  Flora Statistics Kerala and India 2013- 14 
  
  
  
  
  
  
    
  
 
              Source : Forest Statistics 2013 
 
Endemic Species   
There  are  about  1272  species  of  endemic  angiosperms  out  of  3800  species  in  Kerala, 
which is 33.5%. The endemic flora in Kerala is mainly palaeotropic in composition, which is a part 
of  the  peninsular  Indian  endemic  flora  of  Gondwanaland  origin.  There  are  about  189  endemic 
plant  species  reported  from  Agasthyamala.  The  recent  surveys  have  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
35  new  species  of  plants  from  this  small  stretch  of  forests.  The  endemic  gene  of  Anamalai  and 
High  Ranges  are  Haplothismia,  Pseudoglochidion  and Utleria .  The  species  which  are  critically  Sl. N o.   Category   Kerala   India   % to the Indian Flora  
1 .     Flowering Plants   4500   17500   25.71  
2 .     Gymnosperms   4   64   6.25  
3 .     Pteridophytes   236   1100   21.45  
4 .     Bryophytes   350   2850   12.28  
5 .     Lichens   520   2000   26.00  
6 .     Algae   325   6500   5.00  
7 .     Fungi   4800   14500   33.10

23 
  endangered  or  probably  extinct  are 
Anaphalis  barnesii,  Begonia  aliciae,  Didymocarpus 
macrostachya,  Habenaria  flabelliformis,  Impatiens  anaimudica,  I.  johnii,  I.  macrocarpa,  I. 
platyadena,  I.  verecunda,  Ophiorrhiza  barnesii,  O.  caudata,  O.  munnarensis  and  Sonerila 
nemakadensis .  The  five  endemic  genera  occurring  in  the  Silent  Valley  -  Wayanad  region  are: 
Chandrasekharania, Baeolepis, Kanjarum,  Meteoromyrtus, and Silentvalleya. 
Invasive alien species and biodiversity  
 Alien species are non-native or exotic organisms that occur outside their natural  adapted 
ranges  and  dispersal  potential.  Many  alien  species  support  our  farming  and  forestry  systems, 
some  of  the  alien  species  become  invasive  when  they  are  introduced  deliberately  or 
unintentionally  outside  their  natural  habitats  into  new  areas  where  they  express  the  capability  to 
establish,  invade  and  out  compete  native  species.  Plants,  mammals  and  insects  comprise  most 
common types of invasive alien species in terrestrial environments.  The threat to biodiversity due 
to invasive alien species is considered second only to that of habitat destruction. Invasive species 
cause loss of biodiversity including species extinctions, and changes in hydrology and ecosystem 
function. Differences between native and exotic plant species in their requirements and modes of 
resource  acquisition  and  consumption  may  cause  a  change  in  soil  structure,  its  profile, 
decomposition, nutrient content of soil, moisture availability, etc.  
Alien  species  cause  major  environmental  and  economic  problems  worldwide.  Many  native 
species  are  threatened  by  competition  and  predation  from  the  invaders,  resulting  in  the  ecosystem 
modification  and  loss  of  biodiversity.  Quantification  of  the  ecosystem  damage  and  loss  to  biodiversity 
due  to  alien  species  invasion  is  complex  due  to  the  interaction  of  many  biotic  and  abiotic  factors. 
Growth  of  human  population  and  human  activities  related  to  trade  and  tourism,  witnessing  increased 
risks associated with aIien species introductions.  
Protected  Areas  of  Kerala   : The  Protected  areas  of  Kerala  include  a  wide  range  of  biomes, 
extending  east  from  the  coral  reefs,  estuaries,  salt  marshes,  mangroves  and  beaches  of  th e 
Arabian Sea through the tropical moist broadleaf forests of the Malabar Coast moist forests to the 
North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests and South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests 
to South Western Ghats montane rain forests on the western border of Tamilnadu in the Western 
Ghats.

24 
  Table : 3.2  
Protected areas   Sl. No.   Protected Areas   Area 
(Km 2
)   District  
1   Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR)   777   Idukki  
2   Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary   128   Thiruvananthapuram  
3   Peechi - Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary   125   Thrissur  
4   Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary   285   Palakkad  
5   Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary   344.44   Wayanad  
6   Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary   70   Idukki  
7   Eravikulam National Park   97   Idukki  
8   Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary   53   Thiruvananthapuram  
9   Thattekkad Bird Sanctuary   25   Er nakulam  
10   Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary   171   Kollam  
11   Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary   90.44   Idukki  
12   Chimmony Wildlife Sanctuary   85   Thrissur  
13   SilentValley National Park   89.52   Palakkad  
14   Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary   55   Kannur  
15   Pampadum Shola National P ark   1.318   Idukki  
16   Mathikettan Shola National Park   12.817   Idukki  
17   Anamudi Shola National Park   7.5   Idukki  
18   Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary   0.027   Ernakulam  
19   Kurinjimala Sanctuary   32   Idukki  
20   Choolannur Pea Fowl Sanctuary   3.42   Palakkad  
21   Kadalundi - Vallikunnu Community Reserve   1.5   Kozhikkode & Malappuram  
22   Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary   74.215   Kozhikkode

25 
  Western Ghats 
The Western  Ghats  Region  of  Kerala covers  450  Kms.  (28.12%)  out  of  the  total  length of 
1600  Kms.  The  Kerala  region  (Sahyadri)  of  Western  Ghats  comprises  of  72%  of  the  total 
geographical area of the State and around 50% of the State’s population. Western Ghats play an 
important role  in providing substantial rainfall  in  the State. The ‘Sahyadri’    is the birth place of 44 
major rivers flowing through the State. The rich natural forests of this region are a treasure house 
of  palnts,  animals  and  minerals.  The  influence  of  Western  Ghats  has  been  remarkable  in    the 
preservation of ecology of the State.   
Western  Ghats  province  with  five  regions  recognised  for  conservation  management  and 
they are Wayanad, Upper Nilgiri, Anamalai, Periyar and Agastyamalai. High rainfalls on the Ghats 
have  blessed  the  state  with  tremendous  biological  values  of  great  variety,  Kerala  has 
considerable ecological diversity.  The peculiar topography of the state created spatial variation  in 
climate and soil parameters. The high levels of local endemism can be attributed to biogeographic 
barriers provided by the large valleys. Today Kerala has  22 Protected Areas totaling 2,308 sq km 
or  5.9%  of  the  total  land  area,  which  is  inadequate  to  protect  the  great  biological  wealth  of  the 
forests. 
 
Biological Values 
  The  coastline  largely  degraded.  Most  biological  values  are  found  in  the  Western  Ghat 
province.  Kerala  part  of  the  Ghats  has  the  Wettest,  most  tropical  and  most  biologically  diverse 
forests.  Of  the  seven  evergreen  forest  types  recognised  in  the  region,  Kerala  has  four:  Cullenia -
Mesua;  Persea  -  Dipterocarpus;  Dipercarpus-Mesua;  and  montane  shola.  Major  biogeographic 
barriers  separate  the  Wayanad-Nilgiri  areas  from  Anamalai-Periyar  and  that  form  the  southern 
Agastyamalai hills. Extreme levels of localised endemism are borne out of the fact that the Kerala 
area  of  Agastyamalai  has  some  109  totally  endemic  plants,  Nilgiri  anothe r  95  and  Anamalai  39. 
The  area's  biological  diversity  is  equally  true  of  animal  life.  More  than  half  of  the  country's 
amphibians  are  restricted  to  the  Western  Ghats.  These  are  endemic  reptiles  like  the  Travancore 
tortoise,  birds  like  the  Grey  Malabar  Hornbill  and  mammals  like  the  Malabar  civet.  The  forests  in 
Kerala  have  significant  populations  of  tiger,  leopard,  elephant,  gaur  and  many  lesser  ungulates. 
The  Nilgiri  Tahr  is  characteristic  of  higher mountain  grasslands.  There are  two  primates  endemic 
to the area: the Nilgiri Langur and the Lion  - tailed macaque. The Silent Valley National Park with 
its  diverse  flora  and  fauna  is  an  excellent  example  of  evergreen  forest  of  immense  biological 
values.

26 
  The Wayanad Evergreen Forests 
Spread  across  Kerala  and  Karnataka,  this  region  is  the  transition  zone  between  the 
southern Cullenia dominated forest and the drier Dipterocarpus of the north. Floristically very rich, 
the tract has two small Sanctuaries: while Aralam W ild  Life Sanctuary with an extent of 55 sq km 
is  in  Kerala,  the  Brahmagiri  WLS  is  in  Karnataka.  Located  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Ghats, 
Aralam is rich in  wildlife. Elephant, deer, bison are common. The plant life  is typical of evergreen 
and  semi-evergreen  forests  of  the  Ghats.  The  altitude  varies  from  50m  to  1145m  from  MSL. 
Temperature varies at the foothills from 21°c to 40°c whereas on the higher reaches it is between 
8°c  and  25°c.  The  average  rainfall  is  about  300  mm.  June  to  August  are  the  wettest  months. 
Adjacent  to  the  three contiguous  protected  areas  of  Nagarhole,  Bandipore  and  Mudumalai  is  the 
Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary of Kerala with an extent of 144 sq km. It is also an integral part of the 
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve which was established for the conservation of the biological diversity of 
the  region.  There  is  a  large  elephant  population,  there  are  different  kinds  of  deer,  monkeys  and 
birds.  Tree  species  and  plants common  to  South  Indian moist  deciduous  forests and West  coast 
semi-evergreen forests are seen.  
The Upper Nilgiri of Kerala 
The  Nilgiri  plateau  and  western  slopes contain  some of  the  finest  forest Wildlife  habitat  in 
India.  Two  small  partially  adjacent  Protected  Areas  are  located  here ,  one  is  the  Silent  Valley 
National  Park  of  Kerala  and  the  other  is  the  Nilgiri  Tahr  WLS  in  Tamil  Nadu.  Only  89  sq  km  in 
extent,  the  Silent  Valley  National  Park  is  the  Core  of  the  Nilgiri  Biosphere  Reserve  and  claims  a 
long  unbroken  ecological  history.  The  forests  belong  to  the biogeographical  class of  the  Malabar 
Rain Forests, and relic of the ancient India- Malayan continuum and harbour a thousand species 
of plants. The Valley has a fair representation of all peninsular mammals. There are also several 
species of birds, butterflies and moths. 
The Anamalai Hills of Kerala 
The  Annamalai  Hills  are  also  known  as  Elephant  Hills,  the  range  of  mountains  that  form 
the  southern  portion  of  the  Western  Ghats  and  the  border  of  Kerala  and  Tamil  Nadu.  Anamudi 
(2700m)  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  entire  Western  Ghats.  The  Palghat  Gap  has  isolated  the 
Anamalai  Hills  resulting  in  extensive  speciation  in  several  plant  and  animal  groups.  Elevation 
ranges  between  150  m  and  2500m.  Forests  extending  from  lowland  Dipterocarp  communities  to 
wet temperate shola forests to moist and dry deciduous formations contain the most varied set of  
habitats and animal and plant species of any region in peninsular India.

27 
  Flora 
Western  Ghats  occurring  7,402  species  of  flowering  plants,  5,588  species  are  native  or 
indigenous  and  376  are  exotics  naturalised  and  1,438  species  are  cultivated  or  planted  as  
ornamentals.  Among  the  indigenous  species,  2,253  species  are  endemic  to  India  and  of  them, 
1,273  species  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  Western  Ghats.  Apart  from  593  confirmed 
subspecies  and  varieties;  66  species,  5  subspecies  and  14  varieties  of  doubtfu l  occurrence  are 
also  reported  and  therefore  amounting  8,080  taxa  of  flowering  plants.  An  exotic  product  of 
Western  Ghats  is  carried  to  outside  India  through  the  Silk  Route  and  Arabian  Sea  from  ancient 
time onwards.    
Table : 3.3   Species in major group of plants - India & Kerala  Sl.  
No.   Plant Groups   World   India   Kerala   % in India  
1   Bryophytes   14,500   2504   465   18.57  
2   Pteridophytes   12,000   1267   337   26.59  
3   Gymnosperms   650   74   5   6.75  
4   Angiosperms   250,000   17,926   4606   25.69

28 
   
Fauna 
The  Western  Ghats  are  home  to  thousands  of  animal  species  including  at  least  325 
globally threatened species. Many are endemic species, especially  in the amphibian and reptilian 
classes. 
Table : 3.4 Globally Threatened Species  Sl. No.   Animal Groups   No. Genera/species  
1 .     Protozoa   63   genera  
2 .     Porifera   22   genera  
3 .     Cnidaria   90   genera  
4 .     Chaetognatha   18  
5 .     Platyhelminthes   117 genera  
6 .     Aschelminthes   265  
7 .     Acanthocephala   27  
8 .     Annelida   91  
9 .     Molludca (Fresh water)   26  
10 .     Insects   6000  
11 .     Non - insect Arthropda   600  
12 .     Echinodermata   8

29 
   
Vertebrate Diversity of Kerala 
Vertebrate  Diversity  of  Kerala  is  represented  by  1,847species  in  330  families  and  81 
orders.  Fishes  are  the most  diverse group  of vertebrates  with  905  species  fo llowed  by  birds  with 
500  species,  reptiles  with  173  species,  ambhibians  with  151  species  and  mammals  with  118 
species.  
Table : 3.5 Vertebrate diversity of Kerala  Sl. 
No.   Taxonomic Group   Orders   Families   Species  
1   Fishes   41   172   905  
2   Birds   22   88   500  
3   Re ptiles   3   24   173  
4   Amphibians   2   11   151  
5   Mammels   13   35   118  
  All Vertebrates   81   330   1847

30 
  Fishes 
As of 2004, 288 freshwater fish species are listed for the Western Ghats, including 35 also 
known from  brackish or marine water.  Several new species have been described from the region 
since  then  (e.g.,  Dario  urops, Horabagrus  melanosoma   and S.  sharavathiensis ).  There  is  higher 
fish  richness   in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Western  Ghats  than  in  the  northern,  and  the 
highest  is  in  the  Chalakudy River,  which alone 
hol ds  98  species.  Other  rivers  with  high 
species  numbers  include  the  Periyar, 
Bharatapuzha , Pamba  and Chaliyar , as well as 
upstream  tributaries  of  the  Kaveri , Pambar , 
Bhavani   and Krishna   rivers.  The  most  species 
rich  families  are  the  Cyprinids  (72  species), 
hillstream loaches  (34  species; including  stone 
loaches ,  now  regarded  a  separate  family), 
Bagrid  catfishes   (19  species)  and  Sisorid  catfishes  (12  species).    The  region  is  home  to  several 
brilliantly  colored  ornamental  fishes  like  Denison's  (or  red  line  torpedo)  barb,  several  species  of 
Dawkinsia   barbs, zebra  loach , Horabagrus   catfish, dwarf  pufferfish  and  dwarf  Malabar  pufferfish .  
The  rivers  are  also  home  to  Osteobrama  bakeri,  and  larger  species  such  as  the  Malabar 
snakehead   and Malabar  mahseer .  According  to  the  IUCN,  97  freshwater  fish  species  from  the 
Western  Ghats  were  considered  threatened,  including  12  critically  endangered,  54  endangered 
and  31 vulnerable.    An  additional  26  species  from  the  region  are  considered  data  deficient  (their 
status  is  unclear  at  present).  The  primary  threats  are  from  habitat  loss,  but  also  from 
overexploitation  and  introduced species .  
Birds 
There are at least 508 bird species. There are at least 16 
species  of  birds  endemic  to  the  Western  Ghats  including  th e 
endangered  rufous-breasted  laughingthrush ,  the  vulnerable 
Nilgiri  wood-pigeon , white-bellied  shortwing  and  broad-tailed 
grassbird ,  the near  threatened  grey-breasted  laughingthrush , 
black-and-rufous    flycatcher,  Nilgiri  flycatcher ,  and Nilgiri  pipit , 
and  the  least  concern  Malabar  (blue-winged)  parakeet , Malabar

31 
  grey hornbill
, white-bellied  treepie , grey-headed bulbul , rufous babbler , Waynaad laughingthrush , 
white-bellied blue-flycatcher  and the crimson-backed sunbird .  
Reptiles  The  major  population  of  snake  family  Uropeltidae  of  the reptile  class  is  restricted  to  the 
region. The region has significant population of vulnerable  Mugger crocodiles.  
Amphibians 
The amphibians   of  the  Western  Ghats  are  diverse  and 
unique, with more than 80% of the 179 amphibian species being 
endemic  to  the  rainforests  of  the  mountains.  The  endangered 
purple  frog   was  discovered  in  2003.    Four  new  species  of  frogs 
belonging  to  the  genera  Rhacophorus, Polypedates , Philautus  
and  Bufo  were described from the Western Ghats in 2005.  The 
region is also home to many  caecilian species. 
Mammals 
There are at least 1 18 mammal   species. Of the 16 endemic mammals, 13 are threatened 
and  amongst  the  32  threatened  species  include  the  critically  endangered Ma labar  large-spotted 
civet ,  the  endangered  lion-tailed  macaque , Nilgiri  tahr , Bengal  tiger  and Indian  elephants ,  the 
vulnerable  Indian leopard , 
Nilgiri langur  and  gaur . 
These  hill  ranges  serve  as  important  wildlife  corridors  and  forms  an  important  part  of 
Project  Elephant   and Project  Tiger   reserves.  The  largest  population  of  tigers  outside  the 
Sundarbans   is  in  the  Western  Ghats  where  there  are  seven  populations  with  an  estimated 
population size of 336 to 487 individuals occupying 21,435  km2
 (8,276  sq mi) forest in three major 
landscape units spread across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Western Ghats eco -region 
has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild with an estimated 11,000 individuals across 
eight  distinct  populations.  The  endemic  Nilgiri  tahr  which  was  on  the  brink  of  extinction  has 
recovered and has an estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild. The  Critically Endangered endemic 
Malabar  large-spotted  civet   is  estimated  to  number  fewer  than  250  mature  individuals,  with  no 
sub-population  greater  than  50  individuals.    About  3500  lion-tailed  macaques  live  scattered  over 
several areas in the Western Ghats.

32 
  Marine and Coastal Biodiversity 
 
Marine  Biodiversity  is  the  theme  for 
International  Day  for  Biological  Diversity  (IDB), 
2012.  The  oceans  cover  70%  of  the  planet’s 
surface  area,  and  95%  of  the  biosphere.  They 
produce  a  third  of  the  oxygen  that  we  breathe, 
offer  a  valuable  source  of  proteins,  and  are 
am ong  the  largest  natural  resources  of  Carbon 
dioxide  and  moderates  global  climatic  change. 
Some  species,  such  as  the  great  auk  and  the 
sea  mink,  are  extinct;  others,  notably  the  great 
whales,  have  been  hunted  to  fractions  of  their 
original  populations.  Species  diversity  is  known 
to  be  as  high  as  1000  per  square  metre  in  the 
Indo-Pacific  Ocean,  and  new  oceanic  species 
are continuously being discovered, particularly in 
the  deep  sea.  Tropical  marine  ecosystems  of 
Kerala  coasts  include  lagoons,  mangrove 
swamps,  sandy  and  rocky  shores  and  open  sea 
front.  Apart  from  fishes  Kerala  coast  has  a  rich 
array of Crustaceans, corals, echinoderms, mollusks, turtles etc. 
 
Major threats to marine and coastal ecosystems include: 
 • Land-based pollution 
 • Overfishing, destructive fishing, and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 
 • Invasions of exotic species 
 • Global climate change

33 
  Threats to the Biodiversity of Kerala 
1.  Encroachments
 :   Kerala  is  one  of  the  greater  heights  in  the  matter  of  biodiversity 
conservation  and resource generation.  Organised encroachment of forest land might have started 
as early as 1950s. Initially the policy of government was to allot forest land for schemes; like ‘grow 
more  food’,  ‘arable  land’  etc.  The  direct  impact  of  encroachment  is  ha bitat  loss,  besides  the 
existence  of  constant  threat  on  the  forests  by  the  fringe  people.  In  addition  to  their  involvement 
directly  in  the  illegal  activities  they  provide  shelter  for  the  unscrupulous  offenders  of  the  plains 
who are engaged in all kinds of  illegal activities.  
2. Cattle grazing  :  Grazing by cattle in forest, although not rampant as else where in the country, 
is  identified  as  a  threat  to  biodiversity  in  Kerala.   The  grazing  not  only  removes  the  biomass and 
competes  with  wild  herbivores,  but  also  spread  contagious  diseases  to  wild  animals.  The 
trampling  leads  to  soil  erosion  and  changes  the  physical  properties  of  soil.  Intensive  grazing  will 
lead  to  domination  of  a  single  or  a  few  species,  changing  the  species  composition  of  natural 
vegetation. Cattle grazing speeds up the invasion of weeds. 
3.  Collection  of  Fire  wood  :   Firewood  collection  directly  poses  threat  in  the  form  of  removal  of 
biomass,  which  affects  microhabitat  of  flora  and  fauna,  and  indirectly  leads  to  extensive  fire  and 
other  illegal  activities.  The  proximity  of  settlements  to  the  forests  is  the  main  factor,  which 
determines  the  intensity  of  firewood  collection.  The  firewood  collection  leads  to  degradation  of 
habitats  which  subsequently  alters  the  species  composition  and  vegetation  types.  It  is  roughly 
estimated  that  0.8  million  cubic  meters  of  firewood  is  illegally  removed  from  the  forest  annually. 
Along with dead and wind fallen trees, standing trees and poles are also removed as firewood. 
4.  Man-Animal  Conflict  :   A  major  problem  associated  with  the  conservation  of  wild  animals 
especially the herbivores like elephants  are that of crop depredation and man-slaughter. Animals 
such  as  elephants,  gaur,  sambar,  wild  boar  and  birds  like  peacock,  cause  extensive  damage  to 
the  crops.  This  phenomenon  has  registered  significant  increase  in  recent  years  due  to  habitat 
fragmentation  and  degradation  of  natural  forests  and  corridors.  Almost  all  the  Protected  Areas 
and  Non-Protected Areas of  Kerala  contain  a  large  number  of settlements either  inside   or  on  the 
periphery.  This  leads to degradation of surrounding habitats. The traditional tolerance among the 
people  who  live  inside  the  forests  or  its  adjacent  areas  are  fast  disappearing  and  people  have 
become  increasingly  antagonistic.  As  a  result,  the  people  tend  to  kill  the  animals  either  by 
poisoning  or  by  other  means,  like  keeping  crackers  in  fruits,  etc..  This  problem  is  very  severe  in 
northern  Kerala  where  cultivation  of  paddy  is  extensive.  At  present  Kerala  Forest  Department

34 
  provides  compensation  for  the  crop  and  property  damage,  human  causalities  and  cattle  loss 
caused by the scheduled animals like elephant, tiger,  leopard, gaur, etc. Providing compensation 
is not a long term solution.  
5.  Poaching  :
  The  abundance  of  wild  animals  and  high  demand  for  their  products  in  the 
clandestine, market pose threat to wild animals. Herbivores like gaur, sambar, chital etc are being 
poached for their meat. A lot of other not so spectacular species of animals ranging from reptiles 
to  birds  as  well  as  plants  and  medicinal  herbs  are  all  part  of  the  illegal  wildlife  trade.  The  major 
impact of poaching is species loss and change in their demography apart from extensive fire and 
other illicit activities. 
6.  Illegal  and  unsustainable/unscientific  collection  of  Non-Timber  Forest  Produce  (NTFP):  
Non-Timber  Forest  Produce  (NTFP) collection  is  one  of  the major  livelihoods of  the  local  people. 
The NTFP consist of a variety of products, which are sources of food, fibre, manure, construction 
materials,  cosmetics  and  cultural  products.  The  users  of  NTFP  range  from  local  individuals  to 
multinational  companies.  The  forests  of  Kerala  are  very  rich  in  NTFP  including  edible  products, 
medicinal  plants,  toiletries,  tans,  dyes,  gums,  resins,  rattan,  bamboo,  grasses  and  animal 
products.  Although  500  species  of  NTFP  are  available  in  the  forests  of  Kerala,  about  120  items 
are  listed  as  commercially  important  by  the  Kerala  Forest  Department.  But  as  per  record  more 
than 200 species are being collected. Considering its widespread nature and higher prioritization, 
the threat needs to be tackled immediately to conserve biodiversity. 
7. Mining : It is a threat to the stability of a landscape, which results in land sliding and lowering of 
water  table.  The  removal  of  habitat  will  endanger  the  survival  of  riparian  species  since  most  of 
them occupied a very narrow habitat niche. At the same time regulated sand mining would help in 
keeping  the  health  of  the  streams  and  reservoirs.  Indiscriminate  sand  mining  in  some  rivers 
systems in the state is posing severe threat to the stability of bridges and banks. Transportation of 
sand through the forests and other related activities pose severe threat to the ecosystem. 
8.  Mass  Tourism  and  Pilgrimage  :   Mass  Tourism  and  Pilgrimage  are  considered  to  be  one  of 
the major and increasing threats to biodiversity conservation. Approximately 13 million people visit 
forest areas annually either as pilgrims or visitors. Among all the Protected Areas in India, Periyar 
Tiger  Reserve  receives  a  maximum  number  of  tourists.  The  maj or  impact  of  tourism  and 
pilgrimage  is  littering  and  over-utilization  of  resources  such  as  soil  erosion,  fire,  disturbance  to 
wild  animals  for  feeding,  ranging  etc  are  also  reported  due  to  a  large  number  of  pilgrims  and 
unruly behaviour of visitors.

35 
  9.  Forest  Fires  :
  Fire  is  one  of  the  major  threats  facing  the  forests  of  Kerala.   People  who  are 
engaged  in  grazing  livestock  often  burn  the  area  to  get  fresh  shoots  for  their  cattle,  during  lean 
season.  Apart  from  this,  those  who  are  involved  in  illicit  activit ies  such  as  ganja  cultivation, 
poaching,  tree  felling,  NTFP  collection  and  very  often  the  ignorant  tourists  and  pilgrims  are  also 
responsible for big forest fires. The effect of fire depends on the type of vegetation, frequency and 
intensity  of  fire  and  season  of  burning.  Fire  causes  extensive  damage  in  deciduous  forests  and 
grasslands due to heavy fuel load. Only some weeds manage to establish a strong foothold even 
after severe fire with the help of fire resistant adaptations. The direct impacts of fire a re change in 
vegetation composition and physical properties of soil, soil erosion and loss of habitat. 
10.  Illicit  Felling  :   Tree  felling  is  one  of  the  severe  threats  to  biodiversity  conservation  in  the 
state.  The  primary  effect  of  tree  felling  on  bio  diversity  is  the  removal  of  biomass  and  loss  of 
habitat  for  many  epiphytic  and  arboreal  species.  Tree  felling  leads  to  soil  erosion  and  change  of 
the  soil  properties.  In  some  cases  people  involved  in  tree  falling  set  fire  to  the  forests.  The 
opening up of canopy due to felling changes the microclimate and invite weeds to colonize and in 
turn changes the structure of vegetation. Apart from the direct impact of loss in terms of money to 
the state, the indirect impact of felling is the constant conflict between th e administrative staff and 
the people involved in this illegal activity. 
11. Invasive species:  These are non indigenous or non-native plants and animals that adversely 
affect  the  habitats  and  bio  regions  they  invade  economically,  environmentally  and  ecolog ically. 
The  weed  prevents  sunlight  and  oxygen  from  reaching  the  water  column  and  submerged  plants. 
By  crowding  out  native  aquatic  plants,  it  dramatically  reduces  biological  diversity  in  aquatic 
ecosystems.  Listed  as  one  the  100  most  dangerous  invasive  alie n  species  of  the  world,  this 
aquatic  weed  native  to  South  America,  was  introduced  to  the country  as  an  ornamental  plant  for 
cultivation  in  ponds  because  of  its  beautiful,  large  purple  and  violet  flowers.  Today,  it  invades 
more  than  50  countries  in  five  continents.  Examples  of  animal  invasion  in  our  state  include  like 
Tilapia  fish  (Oreochromis  mossambica),  Sucker  catfish  (Plecostomus  multiradiatus)  and  the 
African Giant Snail (Achatina fulica).

36 
   
Threatended taxa of Kerala
  
Scientific  name:   Gonoproktopteru speriyarensis   Raj,  1941.  The  local 
people  call  it  Kariyan  due  to  the  slate  colour  of  the  body.  Periyar  barb 
(English) Kariyan (Malayalam). This species is known from Kallar river, 
tributary  of  Pambiyar  river  to  south of  Pachakanam  estate adjoining  to 
Periy ar lake.  
  Scientific  name:   Garrahughi  Silas ,  1955.  Commonly  known  as  the 
Cardamonagarra  due  to  its  discover  from  the  High  ranges.  It  is 
adapted  to  the  fast  flowing  regime  of  the  stream  with  low  water 
temperature.  Heavy  soil  erosion,  pollution  and  increased  pesticide 
level in the habitat resulted in the decline of the population.  
 
Scientific name:   Tor khudree     Sykes . It is known as Deccan mahseer 
(English)  Kuyil  or  Katti  (Malayalam).  Its  ranges  extends  the  entire 
Penins ular  India.  Habitat  alteration,  pollution,  sand  mining,  over 
exploitation, fish poisoning, alien  invasive fish species, dynamiting and 
electrocution  are  the  major  threats  identified.  According  to  IUCN,  its 
status is endangered.  
 
Scientific  name:   Vijayach elyssilvatica   (Henderson,  1912)  
Common  Name:  Cochin  Forest  Cane  turtle  (English);  Chooralama, 
Kavalama     (Malayalam).  In  Chalakudy,  Kerala,  South  India.  This  is  a 
poorly  known  species,  endemic  to  the  Western  Ghats  of  Southern 
India.  Pet  trade,  very  low  rang e  of  distribution,  Habitat  destruction  are 
the  major  threat  to  the  species.  According  to  IUCN,  its  status  is 
Endangered.  
  Scientific  name:   Cheloniamydas   (Linnaeus,  1758).  Commonly  called 
as Green turtle in English and Kadalama in Malayalam. Flesh and Egg  
is  edible.  The  green  turtle  is  a  circumglobalspecies  with  foraging  and 
nesting  occurring  throughout  the  tropics.  Cheloniamydas  is  found 
throughout  the  Indian  River  Lagoon.  As  per  IUCN,  its  status  is 
endangered.   
  Scientific name:   VaranusbengalensisDaudi n , 1802. Known as Bengal 
Monitor  lizard  in  English  and  Udumbu  in  Malayalam.  The  flesh  is  said 
to  have  medicinal  value.  The  greatest  threat  to  this  species  is  hunting 
as  it  is  hunted  commercially  for  its  skin,  and  its  meat  is  commonly 
eaten.  The  fat  is  also   used  in  traditional  medicine.  However,  IUCN 
included it in Least Concern category.

37 
   
Scientific  name:   RhacophoruslateralisBoulenger ,  1883.  This  species 
is restricted to two small areas of the southern Western Ghats of India 
in  Kerala  (Wayanad  Wildlife  Sa nctuary  and  its  surroundings)  and 
Karnataka  (Coorg  and  its  surroundings)  at  an  elevation  of 
approximately 800m asl. It might occur a little more widely than current 
records suggest. IUCN has listed in the endangered category.  
 
Scientific  name:   Bosgaurus  C.H.  Smith,  1827.  Known  as  Guar  or 
Indian  Bison  in  English  and  Kattupothu  in  Malayalam.  Poaching,  loss 
and  alteration  of  the  habitat,  competition  with  the  domestic  cattle, 
diseases, etc. IUCN has listed in the Vulnerable category.  
 
Scientific  name:   Plata canthomyslasiurus  Blyth   1859.  It  is  known  as 
Malabar  Spiny  Dormouse,  Malabar  Spiny  Tree  Mouse,  Spiny  Tree 
Mouse.  This  species  is  endemic  to  Western  Ghats  of  India  ranging 
from  Shivamogge,  Karnataka  in  the  north  to  Peppara  Wildlife 
Sanctuary  in  Thiruvananth apuram  district.  Habitat  loss,  changes  in 
land use are major threats to the species. It is very sensitive to change 
in  quality  of  habitat  and  to  human  interference.  In  some  areas  of  its 
occurrence it is threatened due to harvest for medicinal purpose.  
 
S cientific  name:   Pachliopta  hector   (Linnaeus,  1758).  Its  common 
name  in  English  is  Crimson  Rose.  It  is  stated  to  be  endemic  to  Sri 
Lanka  and  southern  India,  but  its  range  may  extend  along  the  east 
coast of Orissa, south Bihar, West Bengal and into Sikkim an d parts of 
northeast India.   
 
Scientific  name:   Hypolimnasmisippuz   (Linnaeus).  Commonly  known 
as  DanaidEggfly.  Loss  and  alteration  of  the  habitiat,  pollution, 
pesticide,  fungicide  and  weedicide  application,  industrial  pollution,  etc. 
are  the  threats  to  th e  species.  It  is  Included  in  the  Wildlife  Protection 
Act (1972) Schedule 1.  
 
Scientific  name:   Lissemyspunctata   (Lacépède,  1788).  It  is  commonly 
known  as  Indian  Flap - shelled  Turtle,  Indian  Flapshell  Turtle.  It  is 
exploited  for  flesh,  carapace  and plastron .  Over exploitation,  Loss  and 
alteration  of  the  habitiat,  pollution,  pesticide,  fungicide  and  weedicide 
application,  industrial  pollution  are  the  threats.     It  is  included  in  the 
Wildlife  Protection  Act  (1972)  Schedule  1  and  the  IUCN  listed  in  the 
lower Ris k category.

38 
   
GlyptopetalumgrandiflorumBedd.  
Family                              : Celastraceae  
Habit                                  : Small tree  
Habitat: Evergreen forests  
Distribution           : So far known only from the windward evergreen 
forests in the Wayanad and Kannur region of So uthern Western Ghats  
IUCN status       : Endangered  
 
HumboldtiaunijugaBedd.   Family: Caesalpiniaceae  
Habit: Small tree  
Habitat: Evergreen forest  
Distribution: So far known only from the middle elevation evergreen 
forests in the Agasthyamalaiphytogeographical   region of southern 
Western Ghats  
IUCN status: Endangered  
 
Polyalthiashendurunii   Basha&Sasidh.  
Family: Annonaceae  
Habit: Tall tree  
Habitat: Evergreen forests  
World distribution: So far known only from the evergreen forests of 
Agasthyamalaiphytogeographic al region of southern Western Ghats  
IUCN status: Endangered  
 
Scientific name:   Ceropegiadecaisneana Wight  
Common name: Palaancheera (Malayalam)  
Description: Herbaceous tuberous twiners in low altitude rocky 
grassland areas  
Economic value: Leaves edible, o thers not known  
Distribution: Western Ghats  
Endemism: Endemic to southern Western Ghats  
Threat to the species: Habitat disturbances  
 
Scientific name:   Goniothalamuswynaadensis   (Bedd.) Bedd.  
Description: Third storey undergrowth in evergreen forests  
Distri bution: Southern Western Ghats  
Endemism: Endemic to windward region of Nilgiriphytogeographical 
region of Southern Western Ghats  
Threat to the species: Habitat disturbances

39 
      Scientific name       :   Ixoralawsonii Gamble  
Description: Sub - shrub in shola forest s  
Economic value       : Not known  
Distribution: Southern Western Ghats  
Endemism: Endemic to windward region of Nilgiri     phytogeographical 
region of Southern Western       Ghats  
Threat to the species: Habitat disturbances  
 
Scientific name       :   Miliusanilagiric aBedd.    
Description: Shrubs in evergreen forests at higher altitutdes  
Economic value       : Not known  
Distribution: Southern Western Ghats  
Endemism: Endemic to Windward region of Nilgiriphytogeographical 
region of Southern Western Ghats  
Threat to the species : Habitat disturbances  
  Scientific name       :   TriasstocksiiBenth .   
Description: Epiphyte in evergreen and semi - evergreen forests  
Distribution: Southern Western Ghats  
Endemism: Endemic to Southern Western Ghats  
Threat to the species: Habitat disturbances  
   
Elephasmaximus   Linnaeus, 1758 Asian Eelphant     (Endangered)  
   
Ophiophagushannah (Cantor, 1836) Hamadryad, King Cobra 
(Vulnerable)  
   
Bucerosbicornis   Linnaeus, 1758     Great Hornbill (Near Threatened)

40 
  Table : 
3.6  Endangered Forest Species in Kerala   
  Sl. 
No.   Species   Family   Habit  
1.   Acampe congesta   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
2.   Adenosma malabaricum   Scrophulariaceae   Herbs  
3.   Anaphalis barnesii   Compositae   Herbs  
4.   Arisaema attenuatum   Araceae   Herbs  
5.   Arisaema auriculata   Araceae   Herbs  
6.   Arisaema peltatum   Ar aceae   Herbs  
7.   Hydnocarepus macrocarpa   Flacourtiaceae   Trees  
8.   Atuna travancorica   Rosaceae   Trees  
9.   Bombax scopulorum   Bombacaceae   Trees  
10.   Buchanania barberi   Anacardiaceae   Trees  
11.   Buchanania lanceolata   Anacardiaceae   Trees  
12.   Bulbophyllum aureum   O rchidaceae   Herbs  
13.   Calamus travancoricus   Arecaceae   Shrubs  
14.   Ceropegia beddomei   Asclepiadaceae   Climbers  
15.   Cirrhopetalum avreum   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
16.   Clematis bourdillonni   Ranunculaceae   Climbers  
17.   Colubrinma travancorica   Rhamnaceae   Shrubs  
18.   C yclea fissicalyx   Menispermaceae   Climbers  
19.   Cynometra beddomei   Fabaceae   Trees  
20.   Cynometra travancorica   Fabaceae   Trees  
21.   Dalbergia beddomei   Fabaceae   Lianas  
22.   Dialium travancoricum   Fabaceae   Trees  
23.   Didymocarpus macrostachya   Gesneriaceae   Herbs  
24.   Dysoxylum beddomei   Meliaceae   Trees  
25.   Dysoxylum ficiforme   Meliaceae   Trees  
26.   Eugenia argentea   Myrtaceae   Trees  
27.   Eugenia discifera   Myrtaceae   Trees  
28.   Garcinia imberti   Guttiferae   Trees  
29.   Haplothismia exannulata   Burmanniaceae   Herbs  
30.   Hedyot is beddomei   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
31.   Hedyotis bourdillonii   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
32.   Hedyotis wynaadensis   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
33.   Hyalisma janthina   Triuridaceae   Herbs  
34.   Hydrobryum johnsonii   Podostemaceae   Herbs  
35.   Cinnamomum travancoricum   Lauraceae   Trees

41 
  36.   Impa tiens aliciae   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
37.   Impatiens anaimudica   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
38.   Impatiens cochinica   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
39.   Impatiens coelotropis   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
40.   Impatiens concinna   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
41.   Impatiens johnii   Balsaminaceae   Herb s  
42.   Impatiens leptura   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
43.   Impatiens macrocarpa   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
44.   Impatiens munnarensis   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
45.   Impatiens pandata   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
46.   Impatiens platyadena   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
47.   Impatiens pallidiflora   B alsaminaceae   Herbs  
48.   Impatiens rivulicola   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
49.   Impatiens verecunda   Balsaminaceae   Herbs  
50.   Inga cynometroides   Fabaceae   Tree  
51.   Ipsea malabarica   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
52.   Isachne fischeri   Gramineae   Herbs  
53.   Isachne setosa   Gramineae   Herbs  
54.   Ixora johnsonii   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
55.   Jambosa bourdillonii   Myrtaceae   Trees  
56.   Janakia arayalpathra   Periplocaceae   Herbs  
57.   Limnopoa meeboldii   Gramineae   Herbs  
58.   Litsea travancorica   Lauraceae   Trees  
59.   Loesnerinella bourdilonii   Celastraceae   Climber  
60.   Madhuca bourdillonii   Sapotaceae   Trees  
61.   Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis   Myrtaceae   Trees  
62.   Morinda reticulata   Rubiaceae   Climber  
63.   Nilgirianthus asper   Acanthaceae   Shrubs  
64.   Nilgirianthus barbatus   Acanthaceae   Shrubs  
65.   Nilgirianthus beddom ei   Acanthaceae   Shrubs  
66.   Nilgirianthus ciliatus   Acanthaceae   Shrubs  
67.   Nilgirianthus decurrens   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
68.   Nilgirianthus foliosus   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
69.   Nilgirianthus lupulinus   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
70.   Nilgirianthus neilgherrensis   Acanthaceae   H erbs  
71.   Nilgirianthus perrottetianus   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
72.   Nilgirianthus punctatus   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
73.   Nilgirianthus urceolaris   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
74.   Ochlandra beddomei   Bambusaceae   Trees

42 
  75.   Ochreinauclea missionis   Rubiaceae   Trees  
76.   Oianthus bed domei   Asclepiadaceae   Twiners  
77.   Ophiorrhiza barnesii   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
78.   Ophiorrhiza candata   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
79.   Ophiorrhiza incarnata   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
80.   Ophiorrhiza munnarensis   Rubiaceae   Herbs  
81.   Orophea uniflora   Annonaceae   Shrub  
82.   Otonephelium   stipulaceum   Sapindaceae   Trees  
83.   Palaquium bourdillonii   Sapotaceae   Trees  
84.   Paphiopedilum druryi   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
85.   Phaenanthus malabaricus   Annonaceae   Trees  
86.   Phlebophyllum lawsonii   Acanthaceae   Shrubs  
87.   Plectronia pergracilis   Rubiaceae   Shrub s  
88.   Poeciloneuron indicum   Bonnetiaceae   Trees  
89.   Poeciloneuron pauciflorum   Bonnetiaceae   Trees  
90.   Pogostemon travancoricus   Labiatae   Herbs  
91.   Polyalthia rufescens   Annonaceae   Trees  
92.   Pterospermum reticulatum   Sterculiaceae   Trees  
93.   Sageraea grandi flora   Annonaceae   Trees  
94.   Schefflera bourdillonii   Araliaceae   Climbers  
95.   Silentvalleya nairii   Gramineae   Herbs  
96.   Smithia venkobarowii   Fabaceae   Shrubs  
97.   Sonerila nemakadensis   Melastomataceae   Herbs  
98.   Strobilanthes dupenii   Acanthaceae   Herbs  
99.   S yzygium bourdillonii   Myrtaceae   Trees  
100.   Syzygium palghatense   Myrtaceae   Trees  
101.   Syzygium travancorcum   Myrtaceae   Trees  
102.   Taeniophyllum scaberulum   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
101.   Tephrosia wynaadensis   Fabaceae   Herbs  
102.   Toxocarpus palghatensis   Asclepiada ceae   Herbs  
103.   Vanilla wightiana   Orchidaceae   Herbs  
105.   Vernonia anaimudica   Compositae   Herbs  
106.   Vernonia heynei   Compositae   Herbs  
107.   Vernonia multibracteata   Compositae   Herbs  
 
Source: Kerala Forest Department

43 
   
 
Table : 3.7  District Wise Forest Area 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   District   Geographic 
Area   Reserved 
Forest Area   Protected 
Forest   Total Forest 
Area (Km 2
)  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   2192   460.1831   3.651   463.8341  
2 .     Kollam   2491   827.875   12.6922   840.5672  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   2642   1532.2257   1.568   1533.7937  
4 .     Kottayam   2203   100.8450   0   100.8450  
5 .     Idukki   5019   2679.072   34.6506   2713.7226  
6 .     Ernakulam   2407   823.8302   0   823.8302  
7 .     Thrissur   3032   1018.438   4.3137   1022.7517  
8 .     Palakkadu   4480   860.2   667.1564   1527.3564  
9 .     Malappuram   3550   325.3261   398.592   723.9181  
10 .                                                                                                                                                                                                         Kozhikode   2344   47.3658   243.0856   290.4514  
11 .     Wayanadu   2131   566.511   340.5337   907.0447  
12 .     Kannur   2966   143.7275   97.8442   241.5716  
13 .     Kasargod   1992   86.0221   33.7083   119.7304  
TOTAL   38863   9471.6215   1837.7956   11309.4171 *  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013  
 
*  Difference  due  to  an  area  of  0.0583Km
2
  because  of  the  forest  lands  available  in  Nenjangud,  Mysore  and 
Pollachi which are outside the territorial boundaries of Kerala.

44 
   
 
Table : 3.8  Division wise area of Forest 2013- 14 
Area in Km2
  Sl. 
No.   Division   Reserve 
Forest   Proposed 
Reserve   Vested  Forest  
+ EFL   Total   % of 
Total  
Southern Circle, Kollam  
1 .     T hiruvananthapuram   359.1240   5.8253   3.6510   368.6003   3.36  
2 .     Thenmala   123.4320   -   7.7350   131.1670   1.16  
3 .     Achencovil   284.3298   -   0.2082   284.5380   2.52  
4 .     Ranni   1050.3360   7.1600   1.5680   1059.0640   9.36  
5 .     Punalur   280.0510   -   0.1690   280.2200   2.48  
6 .     Ranni   320.6430   11.0210   -   331.6640   2.93  
  Total   2417.9158   24.0063   13.3312   2455.2533   21.71  
High Range Circle, Kottayam  
7 .     Kothamangalam   316.8451   -   0.1576   317.0027   2.80  
8 .     Munnar   440.4900   175.2750   2.4500   618.2150   5.47  
9 .     Marayoor   13.9720   47.2600   0.0760   61.3080   0.54  
10 .     Mankulam   90.060 0   -   -   90.0600   0.80  
11 .     Kottayam   627.2870   -   31.9670   659.2540   5.83  
  Total   1488.6541   222.5350   34.6506   1745.8397   15.44  
Central Circle, Thrissur  
12 .     Vazhachal   413.9440   -   -   413.9440   3.66  
13 .     Chalakudy   279.7098   -   -   279.7098   2.47  
14 .     Malayattoor   617.2411   0.5248   -   617.76 59   5.46  
15 .     Thrissur   293.7430   -   4.3137   298.0567   2.64  
          Total   1604.6379   0.5248   4.3137   1609.4764   14.23  
Eastern Circle, Palakkad  
16 .     Mannarkkad   150.7322   -   271.7213   422.4535   3.74  
17 .     Nilambur North   57.9196   0.0171   340.7032   398.6399   3.52  
18 .     Nilambur South   267. 3894   -   57.8888   325.2782   2.88  
19 .     Palakkad   73.4100   -   162.0347   235.4947   2.08  
20 .     Nenmara   205.5170   -   150.2104   355.7274   3.15

45 
            Total   754.9682   0.0171   982.6084   1737.5937      15.37  
North Circle, Kannur  
21 .     Kozhikode   24.3998   22.9660   243.0856   290.4514   2.57  
22 .     Wayan ad North   134.0240   15.0640   65.8527   214.9407   1.90  
23 .     Wayanad South   66.1381   6.8449   274.6810   347.6640   3.07  
24 .     Kannur   121.3702   0   65.2014   186.5716   1.65  
25 .     Kasaragode   86.0221   0   33.7083   119.7304   1.06  
           Total   431.9542   44.9643   682.5290   1159.358   10.25  
Agastyav anam Biological Park  
26 .     Thiruvananthapuram   212.0000   -   -   212.0000   1.87  
27 .     Shenthuruni   166.4200   -   4.5800   171.0000   1.51  
           Total   378.4200   -   4.5800   383.0000   3.38  
Field Director (Project Tiger), Kottayam  
28 .     Periyar East   618.0000   -   -   618.0000   5.46  
29 .     Periya r West   157.0000   -   -   157.0000   1.39  
30 .     Munnar   276.8450   -   -   276.8450   2.45  
31 .     Idukki   130.5240   -   -   180.5240   1.15  
           Total   1182.3690   -   -   1182.3690   10.45  
Wildlife Circle, Palakkad  
32 .     Parambikulam   274.1408   -   -   274.1408   2.42  
33 .     Wayanadu (WL)   344.4400   -   -   344 .4400   3.05  
34 .     Silent Valley   154.3800   -   83.1400   287.5200   2.10  
35 .     Peechi   122.0644   3.4200   -   125.4844   1.11  
36 .     Aralam   22.3572   -   32.6428   55.0000   0.49  
  Total   917.3824   3.4200   115.7828   1036.5852   9.17  
  Grand Total   9176.3016   295.3781   1837.7957   11309.4754  
 
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

46 
   
Classification of Forest Areas
 Classification fo forest areas are mainly  in 7 types 
-  Tropical Wet Evergreen and Semi Evergreen, 
Tropical  Moist  Deciduous,  Tropical  Dry  Deciduous,  Montane  Sub
- tropical  Temperate  shoals, 
Plantations,  G
rass  lands  and  others.  The  area  of  Tropical  Wet  Evergreen  and  Semi  Evergreen   is 
3877.4413 Km
2
, Tropical  Moist Deciduous  is 3615.9840 Km 2
, Tropical Dry Deciduous   is 391.3636 
Km
2
,  Montane  Sub -tropical  Temperate  shoals  is  386.4210  Km 2
,  Plantations  are  1527.19 37  Km2 , 
Grass  lands
 covers  501.0865  and  others  are  1009.9853  Km 2
.
  and  of  t otal  Forest  Area  is 
11309.4754 Km
2
.   
�

47 
   
Table : 3.9  Classification of Forest Area 2013- 14  Sl. 
No.   Type   Area (Km 2
)   % of Total  
1 .     Tropical  Wet  Evergreen  and  Semi 
Evergreen   3877.4413   34.29  
2 .    
Tropical Moist Deciduous   3615.9840   31.97  
3 .    
Tropical Dry Deciduous   391.3636   3.46  
4 .    
Montane Sub - tropical Temperate shoals   386.4210   3.42  
5 .    
Plantations   1527.1937   13.50  
6 .    
Grass Lands   501.0865   4.43  
7 .    
Others   1009.9853   8.93  
 
Total   11309.4754    
Source : Forest Statistics 2013 
 
Table : 3.10  Classification of Forest Area according to utilisation 2013- 14  Sl. 
No.   Mode of Utilisation   Area (Km 2
)   % of Total  
1 .    
Dense Forest /  Degraded Forest   8775.6517   77.60  
2 .    
Plantations   1527.1937   13.50  
3 .    
Area under Lease   595.97   5 .27  
4 .    
Forest Land diverted under FCA   410.66   3.63  
 
Total   11309.4754  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

48 
   
 
Table : 3.11  District wise Ecologically Fragile Land (EFL) Area  Sl. No.   District   Area (ha)  
1 .     Thiruvana n thapuram  
885.26  
2 .     Kollam  
273.72  
3 .     Idukki  
1411 .8199  
4 .     Thrissur  
76.5410  
5 .     Palakkad  
4999.8710  
6 .     Malappuram  
1285.0879  
7 .     Kozhikode  
1544.99  
8 .     Wayanad  
2961.5422  
9 .     Kannur  
488.1291  
10 .     Kasaragode  
662.9  
  TOTAL   14589.8611  
     
               Source : Forest Statistics 2013

49 
   
Forest Cover 
The forest cover in the state based on interpretation of Forest Survey of India 2013 is 17922 Km
2
 
which  is  46.12%  of  the  state  geographical  area.  In  terms  of  forest  canopy  density  classes,  the 
state has  1529  km 2
 area  under very  dense  forest,  9401  km 2
 area  under moderately  dense  forest 
and 6992 km 2
 area under open forest.  
Table : 3.12  District wise Forest cover in Kerala    Sl. 
No.   District  Geographic Area
  2013 Assessment  	
Percent to GA
 	
Very Dense
 	
Moderate 	Dense
 	
Open Forest
 	
Total
 
1 .    
Thiruvananthapuram   2192   60   719   537   1316   60.0 4  
2 .    
Kollam   2491   100   675   620   1395   56.00  
3 .    
Pathanamthitta   2642   158   1216   380   1754   66.39  
4 .    
Alappuzha   1414   0   45   68   113   7.99  
5 .    
Kottayam   2203   12   534   344   890   40.40  
6 .    
Idukki   5019   350   2108   1394   3852   76.75  
7 .    
Ernakulam   2407   12   287   399   698   29.00  
8 .    
Thrissur   3032   181   447   440   1068   35.22  
9 .    
Palakkadu   4480   319   685   624   1628   36.34  
10 .    
Malappuram   3550   143   421   691   1255   35.35  
11 .    
Kozhikode   2344   31   313   346   690   29.44  
12 .    
Wayanadu   2131   142   1312   322   1776   83.34  
13 .    
Kannur   2966   21   344   501   866   29.20  
14 .    
Kasar a god e   1992   0   295   326   621   31.17  
TOTAL   3 8863   1529   9401   6992   17922   46.12  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

50 
   
Table : 3.13  Forest cover in Kerala  from  2010-13   
Area in km2
  Sl. 
No.   District   Assessment   Change in  
2010   2011   2012   2013   2010   2011   2012   2013  
1 .    
Thiruvananthapuram   1350   1349   1349   1316   0   - 1   0   - 33  
2 .    
Kollam   1337   1330   1330   1395   0   - 7   0   65  
3 .    
Pathanamthitta   1758   1755   1755   1754   0   - 3   0   - 1  
4 .    
Alappuzha   38   38   38   113   0   0   0   75  
5 .    
Kottayam   895   889   889   890   0   - 6   0   1  
6 .    
Idukki   3932   3930   3930   3852   0   - 2   0   - 78  
7 .    
Ernakulam   696   695   695   698   0   - 1   0   3  
8 .    
Thrissur   93 3   931   931   1068   0   - 2   0   137  
9 .    
Palakkadu   1575   1575   1575   1628   0   0   0   53  
10 .    
Malappuram   1211   1209   1209   1255   0   - 2   0   46  
11 .    
Kozhikode   591   591   591   690   0   0   0   99  
12 .    
Wayanadu   1775   1775   1775   1776   0   0   0   1  
13 .    
Kannur   641   641   641   866   0   0   0   225  
14 .    
Kasar a god e   592   592   592   621   0   0   0   29  
TOTAL   17324   17300   17300   17922   0   - 24   0   622  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

51 
  Plantations under Kerala Forest Development Corporation (KFDC)  
The total Plantation area under Kerala Forest Developme nt Corporation is 152719.372 ha, 
which  comes  to  13.5%  of  the  total  forest  area . Distribution  of  plantation  area  under  the 
management of KFDC is given below : 
Table : 3.14  Distribution of Plantation Area  Sl. No.   Plantaion   Area (Ha)   Percentage  
1 .     Hardwood   86862.979   56.878  
2 .     Softwood   11930.03   7.812  
3 .     Others   4 5302.335   29.664  
4 .     Bamboo, Cane & Reeds   8246.839   5.399  
5 .     Mangrove   377.189   0.247  
Total   152719.372    
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

52 
   
The  species  wise  plantation  area  under  the  management  of  Kerala  Forest  Development 
Corporation (KFDC) is given in below:-  
Table 3.15  Species wise plantation area of KFDC  Sl. No.   Species   Area (ha)  
1 .     Eucalyptus   2421.108  
2 .     Accacia auriculifomis    2134.179  
3 .     Teak & Soft wood   1223.000  
4 .     Bamboo   907.576  
5 .     Cardamon   615.600  
6 .     Tea   100.000  
7 .     Coffee   688.400  
8 .     Cashew   312.263  
9 .     Pine,   Alnus, Casurina, failed Eucalyptus etc   138.498  
10 .     Unproductive / Swamp / Rock / Building, etc   941.508  
  Total   9482.132  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

53 
  Table : 3.16  Distribution of Plantation Area 
2013-14  Sl. 
No.   Division   Hardwood   Softwood   Mangrov es   Bamboo, 
Cane and 
Reeds   Others   Total  
1 .    Thiruvananthapuram   4345   376.976   0   205.7   1108.217   6036.311  
2 .    Thenmala   2505.82   465.81   0   0   574.71   3546.34  
3 .    Punalur   3649.990   657.900   0   176.35   1249.156   5733.396  
4 .    Achenkovil   2790.372   0   0   794.971   1774.342   5359.685  
5 .    Rann i   3755.455   0   0   506.552   2864.581   7126.588  
6 .    Konni   8376.354   32.48   0   882.900   408.18   9699.914  
7 .    Kottayam   2283.454   85.54   0   11.900   962.067   3522.961  
8 .    Munnar   790.524   4399.2   0   579.36   1272.210   7041.294  
9 .    Kothamangalam   4756.065   304.04   0   236.850   1137.387   6434.342  
10 .    M arayoor   100   821.34   0   90.8   152.5   1164.64  
11 .    Mankulam   42.25   101.000   0   135.25   214.63   493.130  
12 .    Malayatoor   5959.1   493.123   0   79.1   2672.995   9204.319  
13 .    Vazhachal   3933.87   479.51   0   330.940   2871.780   9616.100  
14 .    Chalakkudy   4454.050   107.8   0   38.6   1031.84   5632.290  
15 .    Thris sur   2771.500   458.15   0   696.86   6381.770   10308.28  
16 .    TS Perumbavoor   61.49   0   0   0   0   61.49  
17 .    Nenmara   1976.293   146.540   0   360.790   2461.982   4945.605  
18 .    Palakkad   1892.420   108.82   0   173.43   1390. 140   3565.080  
19 .    Mannarkkad   569.11   143.92   0   35   640.030   1088.060  
20 .    Nilambur ( South)    4603.767    0   0   436.32   0   5040.087  
21 .    Nilambur (North)   4225.070   41.509   0   709.754   422.278   5398.611  
22 .    Kozhikkode   308.83   1074.132   0   82.6   1112.270   2582.832  
23 .    Wayanad (South)   2366.550   681.550   0   96.880   1322.41   4467.390  
24 .    Wayanad (North)   859.350   315.690   0   0   2 278.950   3453.990  
25 .   K  Kannur   691.592   0   255.979   102.100   3935.164   4984.835  
26 .    Kasaragod   1227.910   0   116.210   467.212   1675.297   3486.629  
27 .    Thiruvananthapuram 
Wildlife   101.08   140.54   0   1140.690   997.073   2379.383  
28 .    Parambikulam 
Wildlife   8747.466   0   0   0   0   8747.466  
29 .    Sile nt Valley Wildlife   482.3   57.89   0   0   94   634.19  
30 .    Wayanad Wildlife   7486.802   429.67   0   0   2987.899   10904.37  
31 .    Aaralam Wildlife   291.3   0   0   0   30   321.3  
 Total   86862.979   11930.030   377.189   8246.839   45302.335   152719.372  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

54 
   
Table:  3.17  Procurement of Minor Forest Produces  Sl. No.   Name   Quantity (kg)  
1 .     Ayurvedic Herbs   728633  
2 .     Spices   3762  
3 .     Fibre   93765  
4 .     Grass other than fodder   129100  
5 .     Incensive Plants   16757  
6 .     Honey   61687  
7 .     Bee's Wax   111  
8 .     Vegitable Oil Seeds   3373  
9 .     Medicinal Trees   599  
 
Source : Forest Statistics 2013   
 
Biosphere Reserves in Kerala 
The  Indian  government  has  established  17  Biosphere  Reserves  of  India,  which  protect 
larger  areas  of  natural  and  often  include  one  or  more  National  Parks  and/or  preserves,  along 
buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and 
fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and 
their ways of life.   
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve  
The  Nilgiri  Biosphere  Reserve  is  an  International  Biosphere  Reserve  in  the  Western 
Ghats,  Nilgiri  Hills  range  of  South  India.  The  Western  Ghats,  Nilgiri  Sub -Cluster  conjoining  the 
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, is under the UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
Location:  The  reserve  encompasses  5,520  km²  in  the  states  of  Tamil  Nadu  (2537.6  km²), 
Karnataka  (1527.4  km²)  and  Kerala  (1455.4  km²).  It  forms  an  almost  complete  ring  around  the 
Nilgiri Plateau.

55 
  Ecology: Corresponding to their altitudinal and climatic gradients, the natural v egetation changes 
from  tropical  wet  evergreen  forest  along  the  western slopes  to 
montane  stunted  Shola  forest  amidst  the  grassy  down  on  the 
upper plateau  and  on  the  east,  progressively  drier deciduous 
forests  ending  in  thorny  scrub.  This  setting  is  home  for  a 
variety  of  animals-the  lion-tailed  macaque  in  the  evergreen 
forests,  the  Nilgiri  tahr  in  the  grassy  downs,  the  black  buck  in 
the  dry  scrub  and  the  tiger  and  the  elephant  throughout  the 
region.   To  the  north,  the  biosphere  reserve  begins  in  the 
Nagarhole  National  Park  of  Karnataka  and  the  adjoining 
Wayanad  sanctuary  of  Kerala.  The  moist  deciduous  forests  and  teak  plantations  of  Nagarhole 
harbours  abundant  population  of  gaur,  spotted  deer,  sambar  and  wild  pig  which  support  a 
sizeable  number  of carnivores  such as  tiger  and  leopard. Nagarhole  is  perhaps  the  best place  in 
south India for sighting these large cats. 
 
 
Protected Areas:  Mudumalai wild life sanctuary and national park (321.1 km²), Wayanad wildlife 
sanctuary  (  344km²),  Bandipur  national  park  (874km²),  Nagarhole  national  park  (643  km²),  Nugu 
wild life sanctuary, Mukurthi national park (78 km²) and Silent Valley national park (89.52km²) are 
protected  areas  within  this  reserve.  The  Biosphere  Reserve  also  includes  zones  of  the  Nilgiris 
open  to  forestry  and  tourism  including:  Nilgiris  District  (North  (448.3  km²)  and  Nilgiris  District 
South (198.8 km²)), Erode District (Sathyamangalam forest (745.9km²) and Erode (49.3 km²)) and 
Coimbatore  District  (696.2  km²)  in  Tamil  Nadu.  The  reserve  extends  from  the  tropical  moist 
forests of the windward western slopes of the Ghats to the tropical dry forests on the leeward east 
slopes.  Rainfall  ranges  from  500  mm  to  7000  mm  per  year.  The  reserve  encompasses  three 
ecoregions,  the  South  Western  Ghats  moist  deciduous  forests,  South  Western  Ghats  montane 
rain forests, and South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests. The habitat types include montane 
rain  forest,  semi-evergreen  moist  forest,  thorn  forest  and  scrub,  montane  grassland,  and  high -
elevation Shola forests. 
Fauna  and  Flora:  Fauna  includes  over  100  species  of  mammals,  350  species  of  birds,  80 
species of reptiles; about 39 species of fish, 31 amphibians, 60 species of reptiles 316 species of 
butterflies and innumerable invertebrates. Rare animals include the tiger and  the Nilgiri Tahr. The 
reserve has very rich plant diversity. Of 3300 species, 1232 are endemic.

56 
  Conservation  and  Management  of  the  Nilgiri  Biosphere  Reserve:
 Conservation  and 
management of  the  Nilgiri  Biosphere Reserve depends  on  the  coordination  between  government 
agencies and the local people. For effective management, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has been 
zonalised as (a) core zone (1240 sq.km), (b) buffer zone (4280 sq.km). The buffer zone is further 
divided  into  manipulation  zones  like  forestry,  tourism  and  recreation  zones.  These  zones  are 
located in all the three states of Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Kerala into which the Nilgiri Biosphere 
Reserve extends. Most of the plantations are seen only in the manipulation zone. Being one of the 
hotspots  of  biodiversity,  the  Nilgiri  Biosphere  Reserve  has  some  national  parks  and  wildlife 
sanctuaries  within  its  boundaries.  Conservation  of  wildlife  is  the  main  objective  of  these  national 
parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Some of these areas have been designated by the  government as 
Project Tiger and Project Elephant areas. 
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve 
The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve (ABR) was established in 2001 and includes 3,500  
km 2
  out  of  which  1828  km²  is  in  Kerala  and  1672  km²  is  in  Tamil  Nadu.   The  Western  Ghats, 
Agasthyamalai  Sub-Cluster,  including  all  of  Agasthyamalai  Biosphere  Reserve,  is  under 
consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site. 
Agasthyamala is located in this biosphere area. 
Location:  This  biosphere  reserve  straddles  the  border  of 
Kollam  and  Thiruvananthapuram  districts  in  Kerala 
andTirunelveli  and  Kanyakumari  districts  in  Tamil  Nadu, 
South India at the southern end of the Western Ghats.  It is 
composed  of  Neyyar,  Peppara  and  Shendurney  wildlife 
Sanctuaries  and  their  adjoining  areas  of  Achencoil, 
Thenmala,  Konni,  Punalur,  Thiruvananthapuram  divisions 
and Agasthyavanam special division in Kerala. The reserve 
now  covers  parts  of  Tirunelveli  and  Kanyakumari  Districts 
in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanamthitta Districts in Kerala. 
Ecology:  The  reserve  includes  the  Indian  Ecoregions  of  South  Western  Ghats  moist  deciduous 
forests, South Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola. It  is the habitat for 2,000 varieties 
of  medicinal  plants,  of  which  at  least  50 are  rare  and  endangered  species.  Rare animals  include 
the tiger, Asian Elephant, and Nilgiri Tahr. Agastyamalai is also home to the Kanikaran, one of the 
oldest surviving ancient tribes in the world.

57 
  The sanctuaries covered are Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. This region, extending 
to  nearly  3,500  sq.  Km.,  is  considered  the  richest  bio-geographic  province  in  the  Indian  sub-
continent. A sizable portion of the proposed biosphere reserve enjoys protected status at present. 
The  biosphere concept  recognises  the  need  to  involve  the  people  subsisting  on  the  resources  of 
the region in the conservation efforts. The flow of funds under the programme targets the uplift of 
these  people  so  that  their  dependence  on  the  biological  resources   is  brought  to  a  sustainable 
level. The programme also lays stress on research and monitoring activities, documentation of the 
resources, environmental education and training and international interaction at a scientific level. 
Protected  Area:  The  protected  area  of  the  reserver  includes  Neyyar,  Peppara  and  Shenduruny 
wildlife sanctuaries of Kerala and Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of Tamil Nadu. 
Fauna  and  Flora:   The  proposed  Agasthyamalai  Biosphere  Reserve  is  a  pristine  paleotropic 
region  with  a  very  high  floral  endemism and  tremendously  rich  biodiversity,  locked  up  in  an  area 
exhibiting  an  overall  representation  of  the  biota  of  the  southern  Western  Ghats.  The  site 
represents  the  richest  centre  of  endemic  plants,  abode  of  all  vegetation  types  met  within  the 
peninsula, richest repository of medicinal plants, the southern-most haven of endangered animals 
including  primates,  amphibians,  reptiles  and  fishes  and  a  treasure  house  of  wild  relatives  of 
domesticated crops. 
Conservation  and  Management:   A  local  committee  and  a  state  level  Biosphere  Management 
Committee  co-ordinate  the  activities  of  various  departments  in  the  Agasthyamalai  Biosphere 
Reserve  area  and  ensure  the  scientific  management  of  the  ABR  according  to  guidelines  of  the 
Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Agasthyamalai reserve management   is awaiting 
approval as participant in the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

58 
   
Table : 3.18  Biosphere Reserves in Kerala Sl. 
No   Name of 
reserve   Area 
Sq.Km   Forest areas included as Keral a part  
 
1    
Nilgiri    
1455.4     Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary  
     Silent valley National Park  
   Nilambur South (New Amarambalam, Karimpuzha)  
     Mannarkkad (Attappady)  
     Palakkad (Siruvani Reserved Forests)  
   Nilambur North, (Chakkikuzhy, Kozhipara,       
  Punchakolly, Ex.Ka rulai Range (Nilambur Kovilakom)  
   Kozhikode (kuttyadi, Thamarassery, Vested Forests)  
     Wayanad South (Kalpetta)  
 
2    
Agastyamalai    
1828     Neyyar  
     Peppara   
   Shendurney wildlife sanctuaries  
   Achencoil  
   Thenmala  
     Konni  
     Punalur and  
   Thiruvananthapuram territorial div isions and  
   Agasthyavanam Biological Park Range.  
              
Source : Forest Statistics 2013

59 
  Wildlife Conservation 
During  the  year  2013-2014,  Kerala  has  3213.24  Km2 
of  forests  under  protected  areas 
(National  Parks, Wildlife  Sanctuaries  and  Community  Reserve) and  forms 28% of the  total  forest 
area.  The  list  of  Wildlife  Sanctuaries,  National  Parks,  and  Community  Reserve  &  Biosphere 
Reserve are given below.  
Table : 3.19   
List of Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks  Sl. 
No.   Name   District   Area (Km 2
)   Year of  
Formation  
           National Parks  
1   Eravikulam National Park.     Idukki   97.000   1978  
2   Silent Valley National Park.    Palakkad      237.520   1984  
3   Anamudi Shola National Park.    Idukki   7.500   2003  
4   Mathikettan National Park.   Idukki   12.817   2003  
5   Pambadum   Shola National Park, Idukki   Idukki   1.318   2003  
            Wildlife Sanctuaries  
1   Periyar WLS (Tiger Reserve), Idukki   **   Idukki   925.000   1950  
2   Neyyar WLS, Thiruvananthapuram   Thiruvananthapuram   128.000   1958  
3   Peechi – Vazhani Wildlife Scantuary.   Thrissur   125.000   1958  
4   Parambikulam WLS (Tiger Reserve)     Palakkad   643.660   1973  
5   Wayanad WLS, Wayanad   Wayanad   344.440   1973  
6   Idukki WLS, Idukki   Idukki   70.000   1976  
7   Peppara WLS, Thiruvananthapuram   Thiruvananthapuram   53.000   1983  
8   Thattekkadu Bird Sanctuary,  Ernakulam   Ernakulam   25.000   1983  
9   Shenduruniey WLS, Kollam   Kollam   171.000   1984  
10   Chinnar WLS, Idukki   Idukki   90.440   1984  
11   Chimmony WLS, Thrissur   Thrissur   85.000   1984  
12   Aralam WLS, Kannur   Kannur   55.000   1984  
13   Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary.   Ernakulam   0.0274   2004  
14   Kurinjimala Sanctuary, Idukki   Idukki   32.000   2006  
15   Choolannur Pea Fowl Sanctuary     Palakkad   3.420   2007  
16   Malabar Sanctuary.   Kozhikkode   74.215   2009  
17   Kottiyoor WLS, Kannur   Kannur   30.3798   2011  
  Total     3211.7372  
 
 
Source: Forest Statistics 2013

60 
   
Mangroves 
Conservation  of  mangrove  vegetation  is  very  important  as  it  abode  the  rich  biodiversity 
sustainability  of  seafood  species  and  shoreline  stability  and  survival  of  selected  communities  in 
the context of global  warming and sea    level rise . The ecological services  and economic benefits 
provided  by  the  wetland  ecosystem  including  mangroves  are  services  like  flood  control,  erosion 
control,  storm  surge  protection,  shoreline  protection,  nutrient  reclying,  micro  climate  regulation, 
ozone layer stabilization and economic benefits like providing fish,  farages, fuel wood, honey and 
waxes,  etc.  It  provides  unique  habitat  to  birds,  mammals  and  fish  though  a  complex  marine  food 
chain and creation of breeding habitat.  Table :  3.2 0    District Wise Mangrov e Area  
 
Sl.No.   District   Area in Ha  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   23  
2   Kollam    58  
3   Pathanamthitta   0  
4   Alappuzha   90  
5   Kottayam   80  
6   Idukki   0  
7   Ernakulam   260  
8   Thrissur   21  
9   Palakkadu   0  
10   Malappuram   12  
11   Kozhikode   293  
12   Wayanadu   0  
13   Kannur   755  
14   K asar a god e   79  
TOTAL   1671

61 
   
Marine Eco System 
Exorting  pressure  on  the  marine  and  coastal  ecosystem  due  to  land  use  changes,  water 
disposal,  coastal  erosion,  tourism  industry  and  sand  mining  are  reported  from  various  studies  in 
the  State.  The  fisheries  sector  is  facing  pressure  from  access  fishing  fleet,  habitat  degradation, 
over  fishing  and  juvenile  fishing.  Bottom  trancing  poses  major  threat  to  the  marine  ecosystem 
along the coast of Kerala. Kerala has high population density along with its 580 Km long coastline 
and   coastal  villages.  The  climate  induced  changes  adversily  affect  livelihood  option  of  fisherman 
community and a few millimetre rise in sea level directly affect the vulnerable coastal population.

62 
  Table : 3.21
  Marine Fishing Villages in Kerala 
  Thiruvananthapuram   Kollam  
84 .   Vadakkal South  
1 .   South Kollengode   43 .   Paravoor South   85 .   Vadakkal North  
2 .   Paruthiyoor   44 .   Paravoor North   86 .   Kanjiramchira  
3 .   Poovar   45 .   Mayyanad   87 .   Thumboli South  
4 .   Karumkulam   46 .   Eravipuram North   88 .   Thumboli North  
5 .   Kochuthura   47 .   Eravipuram South   89 .   Chettikkad  
6 .   Puthiy athura   48 .   Pallithottam   90 .   Kattoor  
7 .   Pallam   49 .   Port   91 .   Pollathai  
8 .   Pulluvila   50 .   Moodakkara   92 .   Chethy  
9 .   Adimalathura   51 .   Vady   93 .   Chennaveli  
10 .   Chowara   52 .   Thankassery   94 .   Arthunkal  
11 .   Vizhinjam North   53 .   Kannimel   95 .   Thaikkal  
12 .   Vizhinjam South   54 .   Sakthikulangara   96 .   Ottamassery  
13 .   Kovalam   55 .   Neendakara   97 .   Azheekkal  
14 .   Pana thura   56 .   Puthunthura   98 .   Pallithode South  
15 .   Poonthura   57 .   Karithura   99 .   Pallithode North  
16 .   Beemapally   58 .   Kovilthottam   Ernakulam  
17 .   Cherithura   59 .   Ponmana   100 .   Chellanam  
18 .   Valiathura   60 .   Pandarathuruthu   101 .   Maruvakkad  
19 .   Kochuthope   61 .   Vellanathuruthu   102 .   Kandakkadavu  
20 .   Valiathope   62 .   Cheriyazheekal   103 .   Kannamali  
21 .   Sanghumughom   63 .   Alappad   104 .   Cheriyakkadavu  
22 .   Kannamthura   64 .   Kuzhithura   105 .   Manassery  
23 .   Vettukadu   65 .   Prayakkadavu   106 .   Fort Cochin  
24 .   Kochuveli   66 .   Srayikkadu   107 .   Azheekkal  
25 .   Pallithura   67 .   Azheekkal   108 .   Ochanthuruthu  
26 .   Valiaveli   68 .   Maruthoorkulangara   109 .   Malippuram  
27 .   Vettuthura   69 .   Kulasekharapuram   110 .   Elamkunnapuz ha  
28 .   Puthenthope   Alappuzha  
111 .   Njarakkal  
29 .   Vettiyathura   70 .   Valiazheekkal   112 .   Nayarambalam  
30 .   Mariyanad   71 .   Tharayilkkadavu   113 .   Edavanakkadu  
31 .   Puthukurichi   72 .   Kallikkadu   114 .   Pazhangadu  
32 .   Perumathura   73 .   Arattupuzha   115 .   Ayyampilli  
33 .   Thazhampally   74 .   Pathiyankara   116 .   Kuzhupilly  
34 .   Poothura   75 .   Thrikkunnapuzha   117 .   Pal lippuram  
35 .   Anjengo   76 .   Pallana   118 .   Cherai  
36 .   Mampelly   77 .   Thottappally   119 .   Munambam  
37 .   Kaikkara   78 .   Punthala   120 .   Saudi  
38 .   Arivalam   79 .   Purakkad  
 39 .   Vettoor   80 .   Ambalapuzha  
40 .   Chilakkur   81 .   Neerkunnam  
41 .   Odayam   82 .   Punnapra South  
42 .   Edava   83 .   Punnapra North

63 
   
Thrissur   Kozhikkode  
203 .   Mattool  
121 .   Azheekode   162 .   Chaliyam   204 .   Pu thiyangadi  
122 .   Eriyad   163 .   Beypore   205 .   Palacode  
123 .   Edavilangu   164 .   Kappaikal   206 .   Havvayi  
124 .   Vemballoor   165 .   Thaikadappuram   Kasaragod  
125 .   Kulimuttam   166 .   Marad   207 .   Thrikaripur  
126 .   Perinjanam   167 .   Vellayil   208 .   Valiaparamba  
127 .   Kaipamangalam   168 .   Puthiyakadavu   209 .   Padannakadappuram  
128 .   Chendrappini   169 .   Thoppayil   210 .   Thikadappuram  
129 .   Che ppallipuram   170 .   Kampuram   211 .   Kadangode  
130 .   Nattika   171 .   Puthiyangadi   212 .   Poonjakadappuram  
131 .   Thalikkulam   172 .   Pallikandi   213 .   Hosdurg  
132 .   Vadanappally   173 .   Puthiyappa South   214 .   Ajanoor  
133 .   Engandiyoor   174 .   Puthiyappa North   215 .   Pallikkara  
134 .   Blangadu   175 .   Elathur   216 .   Kottikulam  
135 .   Manathala   176 .   Kannankadavu   217 .   Kizhoor  
136 .   Kadappuram   177 .   E dakkadavu   218 .   Kasaba  
137 .   Edakkazhiyoor   178 .   Ezhukudickal   219 .   Kavungoli  
138 .   Manthalamkunnu   179 .   Valiamangadu   220 .   Koyippadi  
Malappuram  
180 .   Cheriyamangadu   221 .   Shiriya  
139 .   Palapetty   181 .   Virunnukandy   222 .   Bengara Manjeswar  
140 .   Veliyanoode   182 .   Quilandy    
141 .   Puduponnani   183 .   Kollam - Mudadi    
142 .   Thekkekadappuram   184 .   Vanmugghaom    
143 .   Mu kkadi   185 .   Thekody    
144 .   Marakkadavu   186 .   Melady    
145 .   Meentheruvu   187 .   Iringal    
146 .   Pallivalappu   188 .   Badakara South    
147 .   Purathur   189 .   Kuriyadi    
148 .   Koottayi   190 .   Badakara North    
149 .   Paravanna   191 .   Mathungal    
150 .   Thevarkadappuram   192 .   Madappally    
151 .   Puthiyakadappuram   193 .   Marakkara    
152 .   Cheerankadappuram   194 .   Chompola    
153 .   Ossankadap puram   195 .   Azhiyoor    
154 .   Pandakadappuram   Kannur  
 
155 .   Edakkadappuram   196 .   Kurichiyil    
156 .   Komankadappuram   197 .   Chalil Gopalapetta    
157 .   Elarankadappuram   198 .   Pallissery    
158 .   Parappanangadi   199 .   Edakkadu    
159 .   Arayankadappuram   200 .   Thayyil    
160 .   Ariyalloor Beach   201 .   Kannur City    
161 .   Kadalundi Beach   202 .   Azhikkode Kadappura m    
Source ; Fisheries Department

64 
  Table : 3.22
  Inland  Fishing Villages in Kerala 2013- 14 
  Thiruvananthapuram  
40 .     Muhamma   80 .    
Vadakkekar    
1 .     Attupuram   41 .     Thirunellur   81 .    
Puthenvellikara   
2 .     Hariharapuram   42 .    
Panavally   Thrissur  
3 .     Chirayinkeezhu   43 .    
Arukutty   82 .    
Anappuzha  
4 .     Vel layani   44 .    
Perumpalam   83 .    
Pullutte  
Kollam   45 .    
Aroor   84 .    
Poyya  
5 .     Prayar   46 .    
Thuravoor North   85 .    
Puthenchira  
6 .     Sasthamkottah   47 .    
Thuravoor South   86 .    
Nedupuzha  
7 .     Puthukkadu   48 .    
Vayalar East   87 .    
Venkidangu  
8 .     Mangadu   49 .    
Mannar Sangham   88 .    
Karalam  
9 .     Koyivila   50 .    
Thalavady   89 .    
Velloor  
10 .     Kadavoor   51 .    
Noorn adu   Palakkad  
11 .     Aravila   52 .    
Eraviperoor   90 .    
Muthalamada  
12 .     Neendakara   53 .    
Marakkattu Ward   91 .    
Palakkadu  
13 .     Prakulam   54 .    
Ramamkary   Malappuram  
14 .     Perumon   55 .    
Kavalam   92 .    
Kadavonadu (Ponnani)  
15 .     Mundackal   56 .    
Thevarvattom   93 .    
Gomughom  
16 .     Sinkarapally   57 .    
Thanneermukkom   94 .    
Purathoor  
17 .     Chavara Sout h   Kottayam   95 .    
Kutturapuzha  
18 .     Chavara North   58 .    
Changanassery   96 .    
Palathungal  
19 .     Koduvila   59 .    
Kumarakom   97 .    
Kadalundipuzha  
60 .     Kumbalam   1 .    
Thiruvarpu   Kozhikode  
61 .     Muttom   2 .    
Vaikom Town   98 .    
Karuvanthuruthy  
62 .     Chemmakkad   3 .    
Thalayazhom   99 .    
Cheruvannoor  
63 .     Kanjirakkode   4 .    
Chempu   100 .    
Eranjikal  
64 .     M analikkadu   5 .    
Kaduthuruthi   101 .    
Vengalam  
65 .     Kuripuzha East   6 .    
Kottayam   102 .    
Vellur  
66 .     Mukkadu   Idukki   103 .    
Teragi  
67 .     Kottiyam    7 .    
Idukki   104 .    
Ullookadavu  
68 .     Padappakkara   Ernakulam   105 .    
Akalappuzha  
69 .     Ayiramthengu   8 .    
Kadamakudi   Wayanad  
70 .     Arinelloor   68 .    
Ezhikkara   106 .    
Vythiri  
Pathanamthitta   69 .    
Mulav ukadu   Kannur  
71 .     Parumala   70 .    
Cheranelloor   107 .    
Kurinjimangalam  
72 .     Thiruvalla   71 .    
Maradu   108 .    
Ezham  
73 .     Maramon   72 .    
Kumpalam   109 .    
Kattampally  
Alappuzha   73 .    
Udayamperoor   110 .    
Mandalloor  
74 .     Kayamkulam   74 .    
Ernakulam W est   111 .    
Eranholi  
75 .     Kochiyard Jetty   75 .    
Poonithura   Kasaragode  
76 .     Chodatheruvu   76 .    
Nedumag ramam   112 .    
Peelicode  
77 .     Payippadu   77 .    
Ernakulam East   113 .    
Thrikkaripur  
78 .     Karuvatta   78 .    
Kumbalangi  
 
79 .     Chenkole   79 .    
Palluruthi  
 
Source: Fisheries Department

65 
  Table : 3.23
  District wise Fish Production in Kerala 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No   District   Marine   Inland   Total  
1   Thiruvananthap uram   41836   3705   45541  
2   Kollam   105009   21877   126886  
3   Pathanamthitta   …   2025   2025  
4   Alappuzha   116159   24828   140987  
5   Kottayam   ...   8756   8756  
6   Idukki   …   1344   1344  
7   Ernakulam   51997   41449   93446  
8   Thrissur   63905   25564   89469  
9   Palakkadu   …   22036   22036  
10   M alappuram   25155   3543   28698  
11   Kozhikode   80050   4561   84611  
12   Wayanadu   …   1005   1005  
13   Kannur   22320   3139   25459  
14   Kasar a god e   15877   22505   38382  
  Total   522308   186337   708645  
 
      Source: Fisheries Department

66 
   
  Table: 3.24  Inland Fishery Resources of Kerala 2013- 14 Sl. 
No.   District   Rivers & 
Canals  
(in KM)   Reservoirs  
(in Ha)   Tanks & 
Ponds  
(in HA)   Brakish 
Water  
(in HA)  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   278   2340   318.82   1424  
2   Kollam   197   2590   273.70   8604  
3   Pathanamthitta   199   2505   62.73   0  
4   Alappuzha   145   0   382.98   152 23  
5   Kottayam   128   0   64.05   4327  
6   Idukki   270   9861   7.55   0  
7   Ernakulam   151   608   520.03   16213  
8   Thrissur   178   3706   900.65   4272  
9   Palakkadu   298   6863   1113.86   0  
10   Malappuram   217   0   61.71   1796  
11   Kozhikode   266   2122   34.38   4162  
12   Wayanadu   63   2937   23.34   0  
13   Kannur   423   648   242.77   5944  
14   Kasar a god e   407   0   1286.36   3248  
  TOTAL   3220   34180   5292.93   65213  
 
Source: Fisheries Dep
artment

67 
   
Table : 3.25   
Marine Fishery Resources of Kerala 2013- 14 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Fisheries Dep artment 
 
   
 Sl.No   District   Continental 
shelf ('000 sq 
Kms)   Number of 
landing 
centre s   Number of 
Fishing 
Villages  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   5175   51   42  
2   Kollam   2454   18   27  
3   Pathanamthitta   0   0   0  
4   Alappuzha   5440   16   30  
5   Kottayam   0   0   0  
6   Idukki   0   0   0  
7   Ernakulam   3051   20   21  
8   Thrissur   3582   21   18  
9   Palakkadu   0   0   0  
10   Malappuram   4644   11   23  
11   Kozhikode   4710   19   34  
12   Wayanadu   0   0   0  
13   Kannur   5440   12   11  
14   Kasar a god e   4644   19   16  
  TOTAL   39139   187   222

68

69 
   
CHAPTER  - IV  
Atmosphere 
 
Atmospheric Pollution  ntil a decade ago pollution was not a matter of concern for our State.  Increasing use 
of fossil fuel in the transportation and industrial sectors is adversely affecting the air quality.  Major 
cities  like  Thiruvananthapuram,  Kochi  and  Kozhikode  in  the  State  have  been  experiencing 
degradation  of  air  quality  due  to  increasing  population  and  vehicular  traffic.  Improper  collection 
and  disposal  of  garbage  is  aggrevating  the  problem.    Scientific  disposal  facilities  are  inadequate 
even  in  major  cities  and  garbage  burned  in  open space  is  one  among  the  major  cause  of  air 
pollution.    Vehicular  movements  and  unrest  use  of  loud  speakers  are  responsible  for  the  noise 
pollutions in the urban areas. 
   A recent study conducted by the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) reveals that  there 
is a sudden rise in air pollution, especially in the  respirable suspended particulate matter(RSPM) 
and  a  subsequent  fall  in  Oxygen  content  in  many  parts  of  the  State.    A  trend  analysis  of  major 
towns  in  the  past  decade  by  Pollution  control  Board  shows  that  more  than  10  tonnes  exceeded 
the  RSPM  levels  of  60  microgram  per  cubic  meter  (Mg/Md)  which  is  the  upper  limit  as  per  the 
National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program me (NAMP) standards. 
  The  number  of  vehicles  has  increased  2000%  from  119720  in   1975  to  2315372  in  2002.  
But  the  corresponding  increase  in  road  length  for  the  same  period  has  only  44%.    The  pollution 
from  industries  are  mainly  contributed  from  four  major  industrial  areas  of  the  state,  three  in 
Ernakulam  and  one  in  Kanjikkode  at  Palakkad.    Most  of  the  major/medium  industries  and  the 
percentage  share  of  total    in  the  State  are  more  in  Ernakulam  which  naturally  resulted  in  and   
adverse  impact  in  the  air  quality.    In  the  case  of  solid,  hazardous  and  biomedical  wastes  the 
average  waste  generation  per  capita  in  Kerala  is  high  in  the  State  compared  to  the  national 
average.    The  database  of  WHO  regarding  the  air  pollution  monitoring  from  1600  cities  all  over 
the world includes 124 cities from India of which eight are from Kerala.

70 
   
Tabel : 4.1  Air Pollution Monitoring Cities in Kerala 2013- 14 Rank   City   Particulate Matter 
upto  
10 Micrometer  
(PM 10)   Particulate Matter upto  
2.5  Micro metre  
(PM 2.5)  
1   Pathanamthitta   23   10  
2   Kollam   39   17  
3   Alappuzha   46   20  
4   Thiruvananthapuram   52   23  
5   Kottay am   55   24  
6   Kozhikkode   57   25  
7   Kochi   64   28  
8   Thrissur   73   32  
 
 
Atmosphere 
Atmosphere  is  considered  to  be  the  most  essential  entity  that  suppo rt  and  protect  life  on 
earth.  The principal constituents of the lower atmosphere are:  
  Nitrogen – 78.8% by volume 
   Oxygen – 20.94% 
   Argon – 0.93% 
   Carbon dioxide – 0.033%    
  Besides there are minute proportions of other gases. 
Green  Plants  during  Photosynthesis  absorb  Co 2  from  the  atmosphere  and  use  it  to 
manufacture  food  and  keep  other  biophysical  processes.  Ozone  (O
3)  consisting  of  3  Oxygen 
atoms  chemically  linked  in  another  variable  constituent  of  the  atmosphere.    In  the  lowest  layers 
the  proportion  of  Ozone  is  very  low.(less  than  0.00005  by  volume  of  atmosphere) .  Between        
20  Km  and  40  Km  altitude  greater  concentrations  of  Ozone  are  found.    At  levels  32  Kms,  it

71 
  increases  forming  what  is  known  as  Ozone  belt,  it  plays  a  crucial  role  in  blocking  the  harmful 
ultraviolet  radiation  from  the  sun.  Water  vapour  is  one  of  the  most  variable  gaseous  substances 
present  in  the  atmosphere,  constituting  between  0.02%  and  4%  of  the  total  volume  in  cold,  dry, 
humid tropical climate respectively.  90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exist within 6 Km 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Atmosphere  also  contains  a  colloid  of  fine  solid  particles  or  liquid 
droplets, in air or another gas which is known as aerosol.  In addition, negligible quantities of other 
gases such as Argon, Neon, Helium, Hydrogen, Zeon, Krypton, Methane etc. were present in the 
Atmosphere. 
Atmosphere  can  be  classified  into  Troposphere,  Stratosphere,  Mesosphere, 
Thermosphere (Ionosphere) and Exosphere.  Of the five layers constitute Atmosphere weather of 
course  in  the  lowest  layer  known  as  Troposphere  which  lies  close  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  i t 
extend roughly to a height of 7 to 8 Km near the poles to some 16 Km all of the equator.  
Stratosphere is a region of uniform temperature extending from an altitude of about 11 Km 
above  the  earth  to  a  height  of  nearly  50  Km.  It  is  free  from  water  vapour  clouds  and  dust.    Th e 
upper  part  of  the Stratosphere  has plenty  of  Ozone  which  affords  protection  to  human beings on 
the earth against fatal effects of ultraviolet radiations.  Stratosphere also provides ideal conditions 
for flying aeroplanes.  The upper limit of this layer is called Stratopause.  
Mesosphere is a very cold region above the Stratosphere which extends from 50 or 80 Km 
above the earth surface.  Mesopause is the boundary line between Ionosphere and Mesosphere . 
Thermosphere  is  the  upper  most  layer  of  atmosphere  extending  from,  the  mesopause  at  an 
altitude  of  about  85  Km  to  the  outer  limits  of  atmosphere.  Ionosphere  is  that  part  of  the 
thermosphere  which  extends  above  the  mesosphere  from  65  Km  to  nearly  400   Km  above  the 
earth surface.  It is an electrically charged layer characterised by the Ionisation of atoms.  Due to 
the presence of electrical d isharge in the Ionosphere, radio waves transmitted from the earth are 
reflected  to  the  earth  by  this  layer.  Exosphere  is  the  upper  most  region  of  the  atmosphere.    It 
extends beyond the Ionosphere above a height of about 400Km.  The air is extremely rarefied and 
the temperature gradually increases through the layer.  The pressure exerted by atmosphere as a 
result  of  its  weight  above  a  unit  area  of  the  earth’s  surface  is  called   the  atmospheric  pressure 
which is expressed in millibars (mb) and is measured with a mercury barometer.  Insolation is the 
radiant  energy  that  reaches  the  surface  of  earth  from  the  sun,  insolation  is  the  most  important 
single source of atmospheric heat.

72 
   
Green House Gas Emission in Kerala 
Kerala  has  a  fragile  and  closed  ecosystem.    In Kerala  the emission  rate  of  Co 2  and  other 
green  house  gases  (GHG)  are  comparatively  low  in  the  State.  A  study  by  Cochin  University  of 
Science  and  Technology  reveals  that  sea  level  rise  and  climate  changes  which  effects  monsoon 
are very much linked to green house gas emission. Considering the high population of Kerala the 
total  green  house  gas  emissions  will  be  50.08  million  tonnes.    However  the  actual  emissions  for 
the  state  could  be  far  below  this  range.  Due  to    the  population  pressure,  forest  areas  are  under 
threat which leads to the higher concentration of Co 2 in atmosphere.   
Ozone Depletion 
 Ozone depletion occurs when chlorofluoro carbon (CFCS) formerly found in aerosol spray 
cans  and  refrigerants  are  released  into  the  atmosphere.  These  gases,  through  several  chemical 
reactions,  cause  the  ozone  molecules  to  break  down,  reducing  ozone’s  ultraviolet  (UV)  radiation 
absorbing  capacity.    CFCS  are  used  in  a  variety  of  industria l,  commercial  and  household 
applications.    Depletion  of  ozone  layer  results  in  increased  levels  of  ultraviolet  radiation  reaching 
the  earth’s  surface.    This  leads  to  higher  rates  of  skin  cancer,  cataract  and  damage  to  people’s 
immune systems.    Small  increase  in  ultra  violet  radiation  diminishes  the  productivity  of  important 
food  crops  and  reduces  levels  of  plankton  in  other  ocean  adversely  affecting  marine  food 
supplies.  There  are  many  other  substances  that  lead  to  ozone  layer  depletion  such  as  hydro 
chlorofluoro  carbons  (HCFCs)  and  volatile  organic  compounds  (VOCs).    Such  substances  are 
found  in  vehicular  emissions,  by-products  of  industrial  processes,  aerosols  and  refrigerants.    All 
these  ozone  depleting  substances  remain  stable  in  the  lower  atmospheric  re gion  ,  but  as  they 
reach  the  stratosphere  ,  they  get  exposed  to  the  ultraviolet  rays.    This  leads  to  their  breakdown 
and  releasing  of  free  chlorine  atoms  which  reacts  with  the  ozone  gas,  thus  leading  to  the 
depletion  of  the  ozone  layer.  Hydrochlorofluoro  Carbons  (HCFC)  are  used  mainly  in  the  air 
conditioning, refrigeration , polyurethane foam manufacturing and cold chain sectors and must be 
replaced with better alternatives. The scenario is not different in Kerala which is considered to be 
a  typical  fast  growing  urbanised  society.    The  refrigerant  consumption  shows  a  rapid  growing 
trend in our state.  The fact according to European Union report that HCFC gases are mostly used 
by  split  air  conditioning  units,  car  ACs and  commercial  refrigeration  thus becomes  a major  threat 
which we will have to face in the near future.

73 
   
 
Table :  4.2   Districtwise Wind Power Installed Capacity (Mw)  
 
Sl.No   District   As on 31.12.2014  
1   Thiruvananthapuram  
 
2   Kollam  
 
3   Pathanamthitta  
 
4   Alappuzha  
 
5   Kottayam  
 
6   Idukki   14.25M W  
7   Ernakulam  
 
8   Thrissur  
 
9   Palakkadu   20.625MW  
10   Malappuram  
 
11   Kozhikode  
 
12   Wayanadu  
 
13   Kannur  
 
14   Kasargod  
 
Source : ANERT
   
Humidity:
  As  the  State  stretches  from  north  to  south  with  the  Arabian  Sea  in  its  west,  relative 
humidity  is  in  genera l  high  over  the  State.  In  the  period  January  to  March  afternoon  humidity 
reduce  to  60
- 63%,  varying  from  35%  in  the  interior  to  71  %  in  the  coastal  area.  The  diurnal 
variation in relative humidity during this period is maximum and ranges from 4 to 16%, depe nding 
upon the proximity of the sea. The relative humidity in the monsoon period rises to about 85% for 
the state. The variation in this period is minimum.

74 
  Table : 4.
3    Monthly mean Relative Humidity of Observatories in Kerala  – 2013 -14    
Sl. 
No.   Station s   Relative 
Humidity %   APR   MAY   JUN   JUL   AUG   SEP   OCT   NOV   DEC   JAN   FEB   MAR  
1   Alappuzha   At 0830 hrs IST   82   86   94   95   93   90   87   88   78   77   81   81  
At 1730 hrs IST   76   79   89   88   85   84   77   75   67   66   71   68  
2   Kozhikode City   At 0830 hrs IST   74   80   96   97   95   89   86   88   81   79   79   77  
At 1730 hrs IST   67   72   88   92   85   81   78   78   66   63   62   65  
3   Kannur   At 0830 hrs IST   75   70   95   97   92   91   87   78   65   68   76   72  
At 1730 hrs IST   67   72   91   94   86   85   82   74   63   66   64   63  
4   Karipur Airport   At 0830 hrs IST   73   77   92   92   89   87   86   83   72   74   75   74  
At 173 0 hrs IST   61   69   84   86   77   77   76   73   58   55   56   57  
5   Kochi AP  (Naval 
Base)   At 0830 hrs IST   76   83   92   93   89   87   85   81   76   72   76   78  
At 1730 hrs IST   71   73   87   84   81   80   75   73   62   57   63   65  
6   Punalur   At 0830 hrs IST   91   92   97   96   91   88   88   85   63   73   80   79  
At 1730 hrs   IST   65   68   89   84   76   76   78   75   71   53   55   57  
7   Kottayam   At 0830 hrs IST   87   90   94   95   93   92   91   90   84   80   81   80  
At 1730 hrs IST   63   71   84   83   76   77   73   72   62   55   58   55  
8   CIAL 
Nedumbassery   At 0830 hrs IST   82   86   94   93   90   90   89   84   81   75   81   78  
At 1730 hrs IST   65   7 1   84   84   76   77   73   71   58   51   58   56  
9   Trivandrum City   At 0830 hrs IST   78   82   92   90   86   90   85   88   81   81   81   78  
At 1730 hrs IST   76   76   86   81   79   80   74   77   88   65   62   62  
10   Trivandrum AP   At 0830 hrs IST   74   80   90   89   84   87   80   83   76   74   74   69  
At 1730 hrs IST   69   75   86   82   80   81   75   74   67   67   65   64  
11   Vellanikara   At 0830 hrs IST   76   81   94   94   90   89   85   77   68   61   63   63  
At 1730 hrs IST   83   68   86   88   78   82   77   74   55   40   52   48  
12   Palakkad   At 0830 hrs IST   76   78   94   95   92   91   89   80   75   69   75   68  
At 1730 hrs IST   48   56   87   89   79   81   75   6 2   58   50   48   34  
Source : 
Meteriological Department

75
 
  Temperature:
 Day  temperatures  are  more  or  less  uniform  over  the  plains  throughout  the  year  except 
during  monsoon  months  when  these  temperatures  drop  down  by  about  3  to  5°C.  Both  day 
and  night  temperatures  are  lower  over  the  plateau  and  at  high  level  stations  than  over  the 
plain.  Day  temperatures  of  coastal  places  are  less  than  those  of  interior  places.  March  is 
hottest  month  with  a  mean  maximum  temperature  of  about  33°C.  Mean  maximum 
temperature is  minimum  in the  month  of July  when the State receives plenty of rainfall and 
the  sky  is  heavily  clouded.  It  is  28.5°C  for  the  State  as  a  whole  in  July,  varying  from  about 
28°C  in  the  north  to  about  29°C  in  the  South.  Inland  stations  experience  higher  maximum 
temper atures  than  the  coastal  stations.  From  May  onwards  both  the  maximum  and 
minimum  temperatures  start  falling,  the  latter  very  rapidly  while  the  former  slowly
.

76 
  Table :4.
4  Monthly mean Maximum and Minimum Temperature of Observatories in Kerala, Year 2013 -14    
Sl. 
No.   Stations   Temperature ( o
C)   APR   MAY   JUN   JUL   AUG   SEP   OCT   NOV   DEC   JAN   FEB   MAR  
1   Alappuzha   Maximum   33.2   32.4   28.6   28.5   29.1   29.9   30.5   31.4   31.5   32.4   32.7   33.5  
Minimum   28.8   26.2   23.4   23.3   23.8   24.3   24.5   24.4   23.4   23.3   24.0   25.2  
2   Kozhikode City   Maxi mum   35.2   35.0   29.2   28.6   30.4   31.2   31.7   33.0   33.3   34.0   34.5   35.3  
Minimum   27.2   27.1   23.5   23.3   23.8   24.2   24.4   24.5   22.8   23.9   24.3   25.6  
3   Kannur   Maximum   33.9   33.7   28.6   28.0   28.9   30.6   31.2   33.2   33.3   33.6   34.2   35.4  
Minimum   26.1   26.7   23.3   23.4   23.9   24.0   24 .1   24.7   22.7   23.2   23.9   25.2  
4   Karipur Airport   Maximum   34.1   33.4   28.5   28.0   29.1   29.7   30.4   32.0   32.2   33.0   33.5   34.8  
Minimum   26.0   25.6   22.6   22.4   22.8   23.0   23.1   23.4   21.6   21.9   23.2   25.1  
5   Kochi  AP  
(Naval Base)   Maximum   33.5   33.0   29.8   30.5   30.8   30.7   31.1   3 2.2   32.3   32.8   32.8   34.1  
Minimum   25.8   24.9   22.2   22.1   23.0   23.2   22.8   23.3   22.0   22.2   22.8   24.2  
6   Punalur   Maximum   36.4   34.0   28.9   28.9   30.5   31.1   32.0   32.9   32.3   33.6   35.5   36.6  
Minimum   25.4   24.9   22.9   22.9   23.1   22.5   22.3   22.4   20.9   20.5   20.4   21.6  
7   Kottayam   Maximum   35.2   33.3   28.9   28.9   29.8   30.7   31.9   33.3   33.2   34.0   34.2   35.9  
Minimum   25.1   25.1   22.7   22.7   21.7   22.4   21.6   23.3   22.2   22.4   23.0   23.9  
8   CIAL 
Nedumbassery   Maximum   34.6   33.4   28.8   28.9   30.1   30.5   31.3   33.0   32.8   34.0   34.7   35.9  
Minimum   25.2   25.1   22.8   2 2.7   23.4   23.2   23.0   23.3   21.2   21.0   22.4   23.6  
9   Trivandrum City   Maximum   34.6   32.9   29.3   29.7   30.6   30.9   32.4   31.8   32.9   32.6   33.5   34.4  
Minimum   28.2   25.4   23.3   23.3   23.9   23.8   23.6   23.9   22.9   22.7   23.2   24.1  
10   Trivandrum AP   Maximum   33.4   32.4   28.9   29.4   29.8   29. 4   31.2   30.9   31.6   31.1   31.7   32.8  
Minimum   26.4   25.7   23.7   23.5   24.1   24.1   24.2   24.2   23.6   23.0   23.4   24.1  
11   Vellanikara   Maximum   34.8   33.9   28.6   28.4   29.7   30.1   30.7   32.6   31.9   32.9   34.6   36.6  
Minimum   25.1   25.2   22.7   22.7   22.9   22.2   22.7   23.8   22.3   23.0   22.9   24. 2  
12   Palakkad   Maximum   37.8   36.5   28.2   27.6   30.0   30.7   31.7   32.5   31.1   31.8   34.5   36.7  
Minimum   26.3   26.6   23.3   23.0   23.6   23.6   23.7   24.8   23.3   23.9   23.7   24.9  
                 
Source : Meteriological Department

77
 
  Rainfall: 
The  total  annual  rainfall  in  the  State
  varies  from  360  cm.  over  the  extreme  northern  parts  to 
about  180  cm.  in  the  southern  parts.  The  southwest  monsoon  (June
- October)  is  the  principal  rainy 
season  when  the  State  receives  about  70%  of  its  annual  rainfall.  Monsoon  rainfall  as  percentage  of 
ann
ual rainfall decreases from north to south and varies from 83 % in north ern  district of Kasaragode to 
50%
 south ern  district  of  Thiruvananthapuram.  Northeast  monsoon  rainfall  as  percentage  of  annual 
rainfall increases from north to south and varies from 9%  in north district of Kasaragode to 27% in south 
most district 
to  Thiruvananthapuram. The rainfall amount in the State decreases towards the south with 
decrease  of  height  of  Western  Ghats.  The  southern  most  district  of  Thiruvananthapuram,  where 
Western  Ghat s  are  nearest  to  the  sea  coast  and  its  average  height  is  also  least  in  the  State  receives 
minimum  amount  of  rainfall.  The  thunderstorm  rains  in  the  pre
- monsoon months  of  April  and  May  and 
that  of  monsoon  months  are  locally  known  as  'EDAVAPATHI'.  Rainfall  d uring  northeast  monsoon 
season  is  known  as  'THULAVARSHAM'.  The  southwest  monsoon  sets
- over  the  southern  parts  of  the 
State  by  about  1
st 
June  and  extends  over  the  entire  State  by  5 th  June.  June  and  July  are  the  rainiest 
months, each accounting individually  to about 23% of annual rainfall monthly distribution of Normal and 
Actual rainfall.
   
The diversity of the geographical features of the state has resulted in a corresponding diversity 
in climate. The High Ranges have a cool and bracing climate throughout th e year, while the plains are 
hot and humid. The average level of annual rainfall is quite high when compared to other Indian states. 
The state basically enjoys 4 types of climate such as Winter, Summer, South West Monsoon and North 
East Monsoon.

78
 
  Table: 
4.5   Rainfall Distribution of Kerala for the year 2013- 14  Sl. 
No.   Districts   2013   2014   2013 - 14  
Jul   Aug   Sep   Oct   Nov   Dec   Jan   Feb   Mar   Apr   May   Jun   Actual   Normal   Departure 
%  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16   17  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   248.1   115.6   219.7   155. 9   273.9   33.7   45.9   13.1   35.1   136.4   272.6   142.4   1692.4   1803.1   - 6.1  
2 .     Kollam   449.0   205.4   373.4   290.9   213.8   39.5   0.6   15.7   51.4   151.7   290.8   283.5   2365.7   2491.6   - 5.1  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   608.4   281.0   310.3   268.4   306.1   18.0   2.9   35.8   36.4   287.0   295.1   415.6   2865.0   2956. 5   - 3.1  
4 .     Alappuzha   636.5   245.4   292.2   186.4   171.5   15.2   0.2   23.3   32.7   641.5   250.6   362.8   2858.3   2838.4   0.7  
5 .     Kottayam   754.3   405.2   296.6   347.3   244.8   16.6   11.1   18.7   45.2   145.3   303.6   496.8   3085.5   2930.8   5.3  
6 .     Idukki   1025.0   688   507.2   230.0   199.2   13.7   7.8   14.2   27. 1   86.8   235.0   493.0   3527.6   3303.2   6.8  
7 .     Ernakulam   826.7   374.5   314.3   318.7   211.0   45.1   0.0   11.1   22.4   375.7   287.9   550.1   3337.5   3028.9   10.2  
8 .     Thrissur   775.9   337.0   275.3   402.6   105.4   3.9   0.0   5.9   3.2   147.7   250.0   455.6   2762.5   3063.7   - 9.8  
9 .     Palakkad   797.9   281.4   283. 7   235.2   74.4   4.6   0.0   3.1   5.2   36.4   190.8   314.0   2226.7   2288.9   - 2.7  
10 .     Malappuram   911.6   352.4   350.2   200.8   175.3   11.8   1.1   0.5   0.0   192.5   236.4   542.1   2974.7   2835.5   4.9  
11 .     Kozhikode   1113.8   391.6   235.0   269.0   96.6   13.8   0.0   0.0   0.8   90.7   254.4   508.2   2973.9   3514.0   - 15.4  
12 .     Wayanad   997.6   413.6   253.4   186.3   27.7   16.7   0.0   4.2   10.1   142.0   202.0   539.4   2793.0   3251.4   - 14.1  
13 .     Kannur   1193.9   421.1   322.0   318.8   50.0   12.2   2.3   8.4   0.0   23.2   253.4   634.2   3239.5   3318.6   - 2.4  
14 .     Kasargod   1001.2   435.0   255.2   182.1   34.1   5.1   0.0   0.0   0.0   15.4   243.4   595.2   2766.7   3620.4   - 23.6  
  State (Average)   833.2   374.2   321.9   259.1   155.0   16.6   4.7   10.3   17.9   156.1   250.7   454.4   2819.2   2946.1   - 4.3  
 
Source : Agriculture Statistics 2013-14, DES

79
 
   
Table: 4.6  Rainfall details for the period of 2013-14 (in mms) Sl. 
No.   Distr icts   2013   2014   2013 - 14  
APRIL - MAY   JUNE - SEPT   OCT - DEC   JAN - FEB   MARCH   ANNUAL  
    A   N   D   A   N   D   A   N   D   A   N   D   A   N   D   A   N   D  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   152.6   333.3   - 54   1109   871.4   27   463.5   522.6   - 11   59   40.3   46   35.3   35.5   - 1   1819.1   1803.1   1  
2 .     Kollam   249.8   406.7   - 39   1777   1332   33   544.2   638.9   - 15   16.3   50.8   - 68   51.4   62.6   - 18   2638.9   2491.1   20  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   201   479.7   - 58   1928   1715   12   592.5   623.7   - 5   38.7   64.7   - 40   36.4   73.9   - 51   2797   2957   - 5  
4 .     Alappuzha   177.7   432.3   - 59   2114   1746   21   373.1   571.7   - 35   23.5   45.5   - 48   32.7   45.1   - 27   2720.8   2840.5   - 4  
5 .     Kottayam   258.6   417.9   - 38   2579   1898   36   608.7   535.4   14   29.9   37.5   - 20   45.2   42.3   7   3520.9   2931   20  
6 .     Idukki   205.4   383.1   - 46   3346   2279   47   442.8   564.5   - 22   22   35.6   - 38   27.1   43.6   - 38   4043.1   3303.1   22  
7 .     Ernakulam   188.8   412.5   - 54   2781   2065   35   574.9   489.1   17   11.1   30.9   - 64   22.4   31.2   - 28   3577.9   3028.7   18  
8 .     Thrissur   139.5   368.3   - 62   2458   2198   12   511.9   469.5   9   6.3   11.5   - 45   103.2   17   507   3218.4   3063.8   5  
9 .     Palakkad   90   257.1   - 65   2090   1572   33   314.2   427.5   - 27   3   9.1   - 67   5.2   22.5   - 77   2502.2   2288.2   9  
10 .     Malappuram   113.3   3 07.8   - 63   2681   2061   30   387.9   448.2   - 13   1.6   5.7   - 72   0   12.7   - 100   3183.3   2835.1   12  
11 .     Kozhikode   215.7   337.7   - 36   3166   2603   22   379.4   422.1   - 10   0   6.1   - 100   0.8   15.1   - 95   3762.3   3383.8   11  
12 .     Wayanad   152.9   257.7   - 41   2690   2632   2   230.7   331.5   - 30   4.2   12.3   - 66   10.1   17.5   - 4 2   3087.6   3250.9   - 5  
13 .     Kannur   126.6   293.1   - 57   3441   2669   29   381   344.8   11   10.7   4.2   155   0   7.6   - 100   3958.8   3318.7   19  
14 .     Kasargod   162.7   264.1   - 38   3086   3007   3   221.3   337.4   - 34   0   2.9   - 100   0   8.4   - 100   3470.4   3619.9   - 4  
  State (Average)   168.8   349.3   - 52   2570   2040   26   430. 7   480.7   - 10   15.1   24.3   - 38   25.6   30.5   - 16   3210.3   2924.4   10  
 
Source : Institute of Disaster Management         
   LEGEND:  A-ACTUAL  N-NORMAL  D-DEPARTURE% 
 
JAN-FEB: Winter Season; MAR-MAY:  Pre-Mansoon; JUN-SEP: South-west Monsoon; OCT-DEC: Northest Monsoon

80 
  . 
  Table : 
4.7  District wise Annual Average Rainfall  2013 -14 (in mm)   Sl. 
No.   Name of District   Normal Rainfall (mm)   Actual Rainfall (mm)   % Departure  
1   Alappuzha   2840.5   2720.8   - 4  
2   Kannur   3318.7   3958.8   19  
3   Ernakulam   3028.7   3577.9   18  
4   Idukki   3303.1   4043 .1   22  
5   Kasargode   3619.9   3470.4   - 4  
6   Kollam   2491.1   2638.9   6  
7   Kottayam   2931.0   3520.9   20  
8   Kozhikkode   3383.8   3762.3   11  
9   Malappuram   2835.1   3183.3   12  
10   Palakkad   2288.2   2502.2   9  
11   Pathanamthitta   2957.0   2797   .5  
12   Thiruvananthapuram   1803.1   1819.7   1  
13   Thrissur   3063.8   3218.4   5  
14   Wayanad   3250.9   3087.6   - 5  
  STATE AVERAGE   2924.3   3210.1   10  
 
Source : Agricultural Statistics, DES

81 
  Geographical Details 
 
Geographically,  Kerala  roughly  divides  into  three  climatically  distinct  regions.  These 
include the eastern high lands, the central midlands and the western low  lands.  Located at the 
extreme  southern  tip  of  the  Indian  sub  continent,  Kerala  lies  near  the  centre  of  the  Indian 
tectonic  plate  (the  Indian  Plate);  as such most  of  the  state  (notwithstanding  iso lated  regions)  is 
subject  to  comparatively  little  seismic  or  volcanic  activity.  Geologically  pre -Cambrian  & 
Pleistocene  formations  comprise  the  bulk  of  Kerala’s  terrain.  Kerala  is  subjected  to  humid 
tropical  wet  climate  which  is  mostly  experienced  by  Earth’s  rainforests.  The  extreme  eastern 
side  experiences  drier  tropical  wet  climate,  with  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  2924  mm, 
whereas  the  low  lands  averages  only  1250  mm  of  rainfall  annually.  The  eastern  high  lands 
comprise  the  states  wettest  region  receiving  an  excess  of  5,000  mm  rainfall  annually.  So  the 
state  of  Kerala  experience  some  120  to  140  rainy  days  every  year.  The  south  west  monsoon 
starts  from  June  and  continues  till  September.  Kerala  gets  most  of  its  rain  from  seasonal 
monsoons.  The  maximum  temperature  throughout  the  year  is  around  36.7 o
  C.  The  milky  cold 
and pleasant  weather can  be  experienced  at  its  best  in  December and  January.  The  climate  is 
humid and hot during April to June, which is the period through which summer extends itself.  
Kerala  State  experiences  three  distinct  seasons  they  being,  the  South  west  monsoon 
(June  to  September),  the  North  East  monsoon  (October-December)  and  the  Pre  monsoon 
(January-May)  The pre monsoon season  is generally dry and receives only scanty rainfall. The 
South West monsoon is the major rainfall contributor to the state, providing an average 43% of 
the  annual  rainfall  in  Southern Districts  and 83% of  annual  rainfall  in  the  northern districts.  The 
North  East  provides  about  33%  of  the  annual  rainfall  in  Southern  districts  and  9%  of  annual 
rainfall  in  the  northern  districts.  The  reliability  of  the  expected  rainfall  in  the  South  West 
Monsoon  is  about  96%  while  that  of  North  East  Monsoon  is  only  about  40%.  The  hydrological 
year  in  the  state  begins  on  1 st
  June  and  ends  on  31 st
  May  which  based  on  the  long  period 
average data of onset of South West Monsoon. 
Rain fall Details 
Annual average rainfall data for the period 1.4.13 to 31.3.2014 is given below.  Period   Actual (mm)   Normal (mm)   Departure %  
1.4.2013 to 31.3.14   3210.3   2924.3   10%

82 
  Average  rainfall  data  in  different  parts  of  the  state  during  the  year  (ie.  south  west 
monsoon,  North  east  monsoon,  winter  season,  pre  monsoon  period  mentioned  separately) 
received from Director, Indian Meteorological Department, Thiruvananthapuram.   
Table :  4.9  
Cumulative Achievement of Bio Gas Plant in Kerala 2014  Sl. No.   District   2012 - 13    
2013 - 14  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   85   13  
2 .     Kollam   86   56  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   162   58  
4 .     Alappuzha   793   676  
5 .     Kottayam   408   155  
6 .     Idukki   243   124  
7 .     Ernakulam   462   422  
8 .     Thr issur   436   402  
9 .     Malappuram   190   50  
10 .     Palakkad   242   79  
11 .     Kozhikode   508   150  
12 .     Wayanad   142   119  
13 .     Kannur   234   10  
14 .     Kasargod   26   11  
  TOTAL   4017   2325  
 
Source : ANERT

83 
   
 
Table : 4.10  Air quality in important Cities in Kerala 
Annual Average mg/m3 Sl .No.   District   So 2   Air 
quality   NO2   Air 
quality   PM10   Air 
quality  
1   Kochi   3   L   13   L   38   M  
2   Kozhikkodu   2   L   8   L   46   M  
3   Thrisur   2   L   14   L   33   M  
4   Malappuram   2   L   5   L   30   L  
5   Thiruvananthapuram   10   L   23   M   58   M  
6   Kollam   4   L   20   L   53   M  
SO2 Sulphur Dioxide, NO2 Nit rogen  Dioxide PM10 Particulate Matter having an aerodynamic 
diameter  
L -   Low; M -   Medium  
 
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board

84 
  Table : 4.11
  Ambient Air Quality Data 2014 - Annual Average  Sl. 
No.   District   Monitoring Location   Sulphur 
Dioxide 
µg/m 3
(50 
µg/m 3
  , max)
  Nitrogen 
Dioxide 
µg/m 3
(40 
µg/m 3
   , max)   Respirable 
Suspended 
Particulars 
Matter µg/m 3
(60 
µg/m 3
   , max)   Category  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   Filatex, Veli   14.58   19.54   52.4   Industrial  
SMV School, Over Bridge   7.68   24.65   51.64   Sensitive  
Cosmop olitan  Hospital, 
Murinjapalam   6.87   23.25   50.35   Sensitive  
Pettah Station   6.86   22.27   51.26   Residential  
2   Kollam   Kadappakada Station   3.76   9.49   33.82   Residential  & 
Others  
KMML, Chavara   5.33   11.38   35.89   Industrial  
3   Pathanamthitta   Makkankunnu   2.00   12.36   22.2   Residential  & 
Others  
4   Alappuzha   DC Mills, Pathirappally   2.00   4.50   40.61   Industrial  
Thodankulangara   2.00   4.5   44.16   Industrial  
5   Kottayam   Nagambadam   8.63   21.70   64.86   Residential  & 
Others  
Vadavathur   6.11   20.92   56.76   Industrial  
6   Idukki   Thodupu zha   2.00   4.50   16.35   Residential  & 
Others  
7   Ernakulam   Eloor Methanam   2.00   10.46   52.43   Residential  
Eloor TCC   2.00   11.66   55.01   Industrial  
South Overbridge   2.60   7.44   71.02   Residential  & 
Others  
Vyttila   3.00   8.74   65.82   Residential 
Rural & Others  
Iru mpanam   2.73   5.03   106.64   Industrial

85 
  Kalamassery   2.63   7.30   47.02   Industrial  
M.G.Road   2.86   7.51   74.39   Residential  & 
Others  
8   Thrissur   Poomkunnam   2.00   12.64   55.01   Residential  & 
Others  
9   Palakkadu   Kanjikkode   2.00   6.41   40.19   Industrial  
10   Malappuram   Kak kancherry   2.00   11.50   43.54   Industrial  
11   Kozhikode   Kozhikode City   2.00   22.28   51.37   Residential  & 
Others  
Nallalam   2.00   16.22   40.41   Industrial  
12   Wayanadu   Sulthan Batheri   2.00   4.50   36.00   Sensitive  
13   Kannur   Kannur   2.82   4.53   87.46   Residential 
Rural & Ot hers  
Mangattuparambu   2.80   4.52   55.14   Residential 
Rural & Others  
14   Kasaragod   Kasargod   2.01   5.15   36.71   Residential 
Rural & Others  
Kanhangadu   2.00   5.39   37.7   Residential 
Rural & Others  
 
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board Directory 2014

86 
  Table : 4.12
  Ambient Air Quality Standards in Respect of Noise  Sl.No   Category Area   Limit in dB(A) Leq  
Day time   Night time  
(A)   Industrial area  
75   70  
(B)   Commercial area  
65   55  
(C)   Residential area  
55   45  
(D)   Silence zone  
50   40  
     
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board 
Note: 
1. Day time is reckoned from 6 A.M to 10 P.M. 
2. Night time is reckoned from 10 P.M to 6 A.M. 
3. Silence zone is referred as areas within 100 meters around premises such as hospitals, educational institutions     
           and  courts. The Silence zones are to be declared by the Competent   Authority.  4. Use of Vehicle horns, loudspeakers and bursting of crackers shall be banned in these zones. 
 
 
Table : 4.13   Effects of Noise Polltion in Human Health 
  A. Noise Hazards   B. Noise N uisances  
Stage I   Stage II   Stage III   Stage IV  
Threat to survival  
 
( a )   Communication 
interference  
 
( b )   Permanent  hearing 
loss   Causing injury  
 
( a )   Neural - humoral 
stress response  
 
( b )   Temporary 
hearing loss  
 
( c )   Permanent 
hearing loss   Curbing  Efficient 
Performance  
 
( a )   Mental Stres s  
 
( b )   Task Interference  
 
( c )   Sleep 
interference   Diluting  comfort  and 
enjoyment  
 
( a )   Invasion of privacy  
 
( b )   Disruption of social   
Interaction  
 
(c ) Hearing Loss  
 
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board

87 
  Table : 4.13
  Major Indicators showing operational efficiency of KSRTC  Sl. 
No.   Items   Year  
2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1   Fleet Strength (Nos)   5812   5860  
2   Gross Revenue Earnings   (RS. In Crores)   1704.8   1863.56  
3   Gross  Revenue  Expenditure  (RS.  In 
Crores)   2200.69   2433.66  
4   Gross operating loss (RS. In Crores)   ( - )495.89   ( - ) 570.16  
5   No. schedules operated   4067   4754  
6   Average  earnings  per  vehicle  on  road  per 
day (Rs)   9197   9812  
7   Average  earnings  per  km.  of  Buses 
operated (paise)   2832   2989  
8   Average Earnings per Passenger (paise)   1294   1426  
9   Average route length (Kms)   50.5 7   52.01  
10   Average  kms. Run per bus per day   318.92   323.38  
11   Average number of buses held daily (Nos)   5847   5830  
12   Passengers carried (Lakhs)   12156   11634  
 
 Source : Kerala State Transport Commisionerate

88 
   
Table : 4.15 Category-wise Growth of Motor vehicles in Kerala 2013- 14  Sl.  
No.   Type of vehicles   2009 - 10   2010 - 11   2011 - 12   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1   Goods Vehicles  
  Four  wheelers 
and above   262824   294395   322450   354296   373218  
  Three  wheelers 
including tempos   108104   117266   128452   206901   140278  
2.   Buses  
  Stage  carriages   43727   46594   21457   34161   28356  
  Contract 
carriages/ Omni   114351   119150   124290   137731   132144  
3.   Cars and station wagons  
  Cars   901663   1060861   122691   1358728   1538246  
  Station wagons   0   0   0   0   0  
  Taxis   151533   163407   175638   128250   194358  
  Jeep   7370 0   73700   73700   74167   73700  
4.   Three wheelers  
  Auto rickshaws   466135   518741   575763   602547   663241  
  Motorised 
Rickshaws   61   61   0   0   0  
5.   Two wheelers  
  Motorised cycles   1017   1017   0   0   0  
  Scooters/  Motor 
cycles   3216123   3610838   4127227   5041495   5288529  
6.   Trac tors   11680   12224   13740   14183   15030  
7.   Tillers   5217   5335   5399   5399   5414  
8.   Trailers   2321   2324   2407   2744   2411  
9   Others   39196   46106   68325   88071   93011  
  TOTAL   5370955   6045322   6865539   8048673   8547966  
   
Source: Transport Commissionarate

89  
  Table : 4.16 Newly Registered Motor Vehicles in Kerala 2013-
14 
  Sl. 
No.   Classificatio n  
of Vehicles   TVM   KLM   PTA   ALP   KTM   IDK   EKM   TSR   PKD   MLP   KZD   WYD   KNR   KSD   NS   T0TAL  
1 .    Multiaxiled 
Articulated 
Vehicles   2   3   0   3   8   4   47   0   12   0   0   0   1   0   0   80  
2 .    Trucks& Lorries   228   156   16   154   165   126   2 35   146   745   0   36   6   63   56   0   2132  
3 .    Four Wheelers   1326   856   656   946   2158   966   3369   2565   1385   2572   3756   665   5914   2569   0   29703  
4 .    Three Wheelers   1418   746   1316   1126   728   256   1856   569   1123   3565   1256   125   5645   956   0   20685  
5 .    Stage Carriage   196   417   386   224   336   218   568   46 4   416   785   1614   236   1325   426   46
4   8075  
6 .    Contract 
Carriage   614   198   465   236   359   96   756   236   456   610   112   11   125   28   0   4392  
7 .    Private Service 
Vehicles   1426   36   126   6   16   14   39   10   0   223   14   1   10   5   0   1926  
8 .    Other Buses   0   42   0   46   31   18   21   55   65   754   36   12   36   19   0   1126  
9 .    Motor Cabs   1346   698   864   836   1356   426   1523   1222   565   556   369   74   426   226   0   10577  
10 .    Maxi Cabs/Taxi   146   26   7   0   14   12   0   44   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   249  
11 .    Other Taxi   0   0   16   46   0   8   123   8   60   116   15   56   55   460   0   549  
12 .    LMV 3 Seater   4794   1247   1920   1956   3956   1654   4226   3169   3000   4 456   5312   1588   2236   3956   0   43770  
13 .    LMV 4 to 6 
Seater   4225   2654   1126   2985   526   123   3746   0   0   0   0   0   2659   2265   0   20309  
14 .    Motor Cycle 
Hire   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   2   0   2  
15 .    Other Transport  0   122   0   0    184   41   184   221   0   0   120   0   956   109   0   1937

90  
  Vehicles  
16 .    Scooters   210 6   0   0   456   0   0   0   0   0   0   2113   33   166   0   0   1874  
17 .    Mopeds   2356   1113   300   1256   474   22   112   422   1123   0   2369   146   642   0   0   10335  
18 .    Motor Cycle 
including above 
& below 95cc   7215
6   5486
6   2651
8   4026
3   3252
3   1023
6   97653   4966
6   4256
5   6326
5   4736
5   7896   4256
1   1325
6   0   60078
9  
19 .    Car s   1856
5   9456   4316   8659   1212
6   3606   21036   1323
3   9564   1356
4   1545
6   2169   1225
6   8456   0   14946
2  
20 .    Jeeps   25   40   16   125   80   16   44   66   42   164   56   3   125   118   0   920  
21 .    Omni Buses   0   86   24   15   182   21   78   78   78   3   78   42   246   116   0   1047  
22 .    Tractors   6   6   2   16   43   10   18   47   26   60   13   15   26   16   0   304  
23 .    Trailors   2   11   24   2   12   12   0   0   0   213   0   0   0   0   0   276  
24 .    Others   534   421   612   502   1435   866   1023   794   669   0   1123   0   241   693   0   8913  
  GRAND TOTAL   111561   73200   38710   59858   56712   18751   136657   70105   62194   90397   81213   13078   75714   33318   464   922432  
 
Source :  Kerala State Transport Commisionerate

91  
   
Table : 4.17  Total Registered Motor vechicle in Kerala during 2013- 14    Transport  
SL .  
NO.   VEHICLE CLASS  Trivandrum
 	
Kollam
 	
Pathanamthitta
 	
Alappuzha
 	
Kottayam
 	
Idukki
 	
Eranakulam
 	
Thrissur
 	
Palakkad
 	
Malappuram
 	
Kozhikkode
 	
W
ayanad
 	
Kannur
 	
Kasargod
 	
Total
 
1   Lmv  -   3  Wheeled  Vehicle  For 
Transport -   Passenger (A/R)   5427   3909   1765   1930   2086   1243   2961   2957   2160   4783   3064   1046   2530   1157   37018  
2   Lmv  -   3  Wheeled  Vehicle  For 
Transport -   Goods   638   709   383   530   428   189   489   58 5   745   1164   925   245   651   137   7818  
3   Lmv  -   Goods Carrier Truck   1516   1353   787   1546   1500   554   2755   1700   1155   2134   1418   361   1516   633   18928  
4   Mgv  -   Goods Carrier Truck   97   105   34   49   72   34   224   112   85   65   70   16   160   32   1155  
5   Hgv  -   Goods Truck   75   60   22   51   76   37   225   80   65   59   86   14   52   30   932  
6   Multi Axled Vehicle   0   5   0   10   1   0   25   2   34   2   0   0   0   0   79  
7   Articulated Vehicle   19   9   4   8   10   8   23   7   24   28   5   5   7   4   161  
8   Private Service Vehic le   70   12   7   14   16   4   68   13   8   10   19   1   10   5   257  
9   Contract Carriage (Eib)   256   113   87   107   96   54   282   146   120   173   137   25   134   73   1803  
10   Stage Carriage   344   18   17   13   88   36   53   55   52   53   70   8   108   18   933  
11   Contract Carri age   279   207   120   257   351   77   472   354   153   108   133   31   202   35   2779

92  
  12   Lmv  Contract  Carriage  Imported 
Vehicle   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0  
13   All India Tourist Taxi   54   2   0   1   1   15   15   5   42   17   20   44   217   142   575  
14   Ex cavator   1   0   0   0   0   0   1   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   2  
15   Goods Carrier Tanker   9   6   2   4   3   3   30   9   6   1   4   1   6   0   84  
16   Water Tanker   17   1   3   0   2   1   18   2   4   5   5   0   0   0   58  
17   Oil Tanker   3   3   0   0   0   0   1   0   0   3   0   0   0   0   10  
18   Gas Tanker   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0  
19   Hazardous  
Goods Tanker   4   2   1   0   2   0   14   28   4   8   3   0   3   0   69  
20   Three  WHEELER  PASSENGER 
-   7 SEATER11   1039   945   905   1673   1344   548   2901   2061   1299   956   1263   319   1101   427   16781  
21   Tractor Trailor   2   0   2   1   2   3   1   2   0   2   0   11   0   2   28  
22   Trailor   0   0   0   1   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   1  
23   Tipper   340   299   166   159   195   63   599   236   245   381   321   84   356   138   3582  
24   Ambulance   56   40   26   20   41   16   59   31   23   37   49   17   21   5   441  
25   Road Roller   1   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   1  
26   Zonal Tourist Taxi   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0  
27   All other Types of Vehicles   75   69   39   75   59   38   196   132   72   166   100   30   80   28   1159  
  TOTAL   10322   7867   4370   6449   6373   2923   11412   8517   6296   10155   7692   2258   7154   2866   94654

93  
     
Non Transport  
Sl. 
No.   Vehicle C lass  Thiruvananthapuram
 	
Kollam
 	
Pathanamthitta
 	
Alappuzha
 	
Kottayam
 	
Idukki
 	
Eranakulam
 	
Thrissur
 	
Palakkad
 	
Malappuram
 	
Kozhikkode
 	
Wayanad
 	
Kannur
 	
Kasargod
 	
Total
 
1   Motor Cycle  –  
Below 95cc   1199   673   327   814   337   73   923   1828   4278   681   281   183   529   220   12346  
2   Motor  Cy cle  -   Above 
95cc   71465   55056   25612   45826   32257   12927   77794   59910   43978   64835   70349   8495   38217   17926   624647  
3   Motor  Car  Below  1500 
Cc   19822   13734   8789   10032   13349   3998   23731   15694   9573   16668   14613   2585   13344   7094   173026  
4   MOTOR  CAR  1500  CC 
And Above   2152   1281   926   781   1237   420   3268   1685   720   1020   1170   228   1005   475   16368  
5   Psv  For  Personal  Use 
Below 1500 Cc   253   221   88   113   181   43   164   152   125   230   137   50   197   192   2146  
6   Tractor   15   25   22   24   24   6   54   69   86   67   12   10   41   16   471  
7   Vehicle Mounted  
with Generator   0   0   1   0   0   0   7   0   0   1   0   0   0   0   9  
8   Vehicle Mounted  
with Compressor   0   1   1   0   1   2   0   0   0   0   1   1   0   0   7

94  
  9   Vehicle Mounted  
with Rig   4   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   4  
10   Vehicle Mounted  
with Crane   11   8   2   7   8   5   44   11   8   6   9   0   8   4   131  
11   Invalid  Carriage  -   Motor 
Cycle   306   19   6   52   31   1   32   11   7   18   20   15   16   19   553  
12   Earth  Moving 
Equipment   60   47   16   25   64   23   112   39   28   83   70   10   80   60   717  
13   Road Roller   21   10   7   13   8   9   63   17   8   17   17   0   18   5   213  
14   Bulldozer   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   0  
15   Imported  Psv  Personal 
Use   317   230   126   97   188   46   342   309   204   267   293   37   198   104   4758  
16   All  Other  Types  of 
Vehicles   90   48   21   20   47   29   64   47   64   125   29   8   57   19   668  
  TOTAL   95715   71353   35944   57804   47732   17 582   106598   79772   59079   84018   87001   11622   53710   26134   834064  
 
Source: Transport Commissionarate

95 
  Table : 4.18
  Complying Status of Grossly Polluting Industries  Sl. 
No.   Name and 
Address of 
Industry   Sector   Category of 
Industry   Date of 
commen
cement 
of 
Industry   Effluents 
recipient water 
body or lakes   Concerned recipient 
River   Effluent   BOD (Kg/day) and other 
pollution load   ETP  
status  
Name   Dist. 
From 
industry 
(km)   Name   Distance 
from the 
discharge 
point of 
recipient 
waterbody   Quality 
Compli
ance 
(Yes/ 
No)  Quantity in 	
KLD
  Before treatment   After 
treatment    
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14  
1 .    Binani  Zinc  Ltd., 
Edayar, 
Ernakulam   PU   Zinc   1967   River 
Periyar   40 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   550   pH  
SS  
SulphateCd  
Zinc Fluoride     8.5  
55  
550  
0.11  
2.75  
8.25   OPRS  
2   Indian  Rare 
Earth  Ltd., 
Eloor, 
Ernakulam   PU   Mineral 
Processing   1952   River 
Periyar   0.1 km   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   4   pH  
SS  
COD  
Amm.N2  
Phosphate 
Sulphide  
Zinc  
Flouride  
Lead     9  
40  
100  
20  
2  
0.8  
2  
0.8  
0.4   OPRNS  
3   FACT    Ltd., 
Udyogamandal, 
Eloor, 
Ernakulam   CU   Fertilizer   1966   River 
Periyar   300 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   No   12000   pH  
SS  
Phosphate  
Sulphide  
Hex.Chr  
O & G  
Free  Amm 
Amm Nitra  
Nitrate  
TKN  
As.  
V  
Fluoride CN     8  
1200  
60  
1.2  
120  
48  
900  
120  
1800  
2.4  
2.4  
18  
2.4   OPRNS

96 
  4   FACT  Ltd., 
Petrochemical 
Division, 
Udyogamandal 
P.O.,  Eloor, 
Ernakulam   CU   Petrochemic
al   1990   River 
Periyar   200  m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   5040   BOD  
pH  
SS  
COD  
O & G  
Free  NH3 
Amm.NH3  
TKN  
Nitrate  
Phenolic  
Compounds     151.2  
8.5  
151.2  
1260  
50.4  
25.2  
252  
504  
100.8  
5.04   OPRS  
5   Cochin  Minerals 
&  Rutiles  Ltd., 
Edayar, 
Ernakulam   PU   Chemical   1992   River 
P eriyar   500 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   250   pH  
SS  
O & G  
HC  
Total Chr.     8.5  
25  
2.5  
0.25  
25  
0.5   OPRS  
 
 
 
 
 
6   Hindustan 
Insecticides, 
Eloor, 
Ernakulam   CU   Pesticides   1958   Kuzhika
ndom 
thode   1750 m   River 
Periyar   Through 
Kuzhikandom 
thode   No   1024   pH  
SS  
TDS  
O & G  
SO2  
Chlorine     9  
102.4  
2150.4  
10.24  
1024  
1024   OPRNS  
RNS  
7   Sudchemie 
(India)  Pvt.  Ltd., 
Edayar, 
Ernakulam   PU   Chemical   1969   River 
Periyar   10 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   450   pH  
SS  
O & G  
Hex Chr  
Zinc  
Free NH3  
Total Ch r.  
Amm.N2     9  
45  
4.5  
0.045  
2.25  
2.25  
0.9  
22.5   OPRS  
 
 
 
 
 
 
8   Cochin  Leathers 
Pvt.    Ltd.,  IDA, 
Edayar, 
Muppathadom 
P.O., Ernakulam   PU   Tannery   1993   River 
Periyar   125 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   43   BOD  
pH  
SS  
O & G   
Hex. Chr.  
Chloride  
Sulph ide  
Total Chr.     1.29  
8.5  
4.3  
0.43  
0.0043  
43  
0.086  
0.086   OPRS

97 
  9   TMS  Leathers 
Pvt.    Ltd.,  IDA, 
Edayar, 
Muppathadom 
P.O., Ernakulam   PU   Tannery   2004   River 
Periyar   150 m   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   Yes   1010   BOD  
pH  
SS  
Hex. Chr.  
Sulphide  
O & G     3 .03  
9  
10.1  
0.0101  
0.0101  
1.01   OPRNS  
10   SreesakthiPaper 
Mills    Ltd.,  IDA, 
Edayar, Ekm.   PU   Pulp & 
Paper   1993   River 
Periyar   1 km   River 
Periyar   Discharge 
directly into 
river   No   10   BOD  
pH  
SS     0.3  
9  
1   OPRNS  
11   Hindustan 
Organic 
Cemicals  Ltd., 
Ambalamugal,  
Ern akulam   CU   Petrochemic
al   1988   Chithrap
uzha   >100m   Chithrap
uzha 
River   Discharge 
directly into 
Chithrapuzha   Yes     BOD   41  
2.8   9.6   OPRS  
12   Cochi  Refinery, 
Ambalamugal,  
Ernakulam   CU   Oil Refinery   1966   Chithrap
uzha   >100m   Chithrap
uzha 
River   Discharge 
directly into 
Chitrapuzha   Yes     BOD   24  
21  
03   20.43   OPRS  
13   Gramox  Paper 
and  Boards, 
Puthuppady, 
Muvattupuzha,  
Ernakulam   PU   Pulp & 
Paper   1995     >100m   Kotham
angalam 
River     Yes     BOD   12  
3.5   23.92   OPRS  
14   Nitta    Gelatin 
India  Pvt.  Ltd., 
Kathikudam  P. 
O.,  Koratty  (via) 
Thris sur -
680308.   PU   Ossein 
Manufacture   1979   Chalaku
dy River   0.5 km   Chalaku
dy River   0.5km   Yes   6290   BOD   15  
72  
5   151   OPRS  
15   Sree  Sakthi 
Paper  Mills, 
Chalakudy 
Thrissur   PU   Duplex 
Board   1995   Chalaku
dy River   0.005 km   Chalaku
dy River   0.005km   No     BOD     292   OPRNS 
compa ny has 
requested to 
givepermission 
to dis -   charge 
effluent to the 
river and they 
have proposed  
augmentation 
ofexisting ETP 
toachievequalit
y compliance .

98 
  16   Sitaram Textiles, 
Thrissur.   CU   Bleaching and dyeing process stopped and hence no effluent generatio n    
17   Vaigai  Threads 
(Former  Madura 
coats Ltd)   PU   Polyster  & 
Cotton 
finished 
thread     Perumb
ithoode   0.25km   Chalak
udy 
River   3.5km   Yes   11.7   No  process  effluent  as  there  is  no 
dyeing  and  bleaching  and  effluent 
from  floor  washing  and  canteen 
treated  in  ETP  and   discharged 
satisfactorily.   OPRS  
18   United 
Breweries 
Limited, 
Kanjikode  West 
P.  O.,  Palakkad 
–   678623.   PU   Fermentation 
Industry   1970   Naraka
mpilly 
River   500m   Kalpath
y  River, 
tributary 
of 
Bharath
apuzha   5km     400   BOD   345.6   10.4    
19   United  Spirits 
Limited,For mer 
McDowell&  Co. 
Ltd)  Cherthala, 
Alapuzha   PU   Distillery     Vemba
nadu 
Lake   Banks 
of  the 
lake   Vemba
nadu 
lake   Banks  of 
lake   No   270   BOD   313  
2   4.1   OPRNS  
20   Tata  Tea  Ltd., 
Munnar, Idukki   CU   Food  & 
Vegetables   1964   No effluent discharge to water bodies. Entire eff luent discharged is recycled.   OPRS  
21   Hindustan  News 
print  Ltd., 
Newsprint 
Nagar, 
Kottayam.   CU   Pulp & Paper   1983   Muvattu
puzha 
River   2km   Muvattu
puzha 
River   2km   Yes   38384   BOD   1013  
3   1152   OPRS  
22   MRFLtd., 
Vadavathoor, 
Kottayam.   PU   Rubber 
Industry   1959   Meena n
thara 
River   2km   Meenan
thara 
River   2km   Yes   200   BOD   155   6   OPRS  
23   Canara  Paper 
Mills  Pvt.  Ltd., 
Chethipuzha, 
Changanachery, 
Kottayam.   PU   Craft Paper   1985   Chethip
uzha 
Canal   50m   Vemba
nat 
Kayal   8km   Yes   5   1.8   0.64  
5     OPRS  
24   Kollam  Dairy, 
Thevally, 
Kollam.    C P   Milk 
Processing   1986   Ashtam
udy 
lake   0.01km           BOD   180   23.5   OPRS  
 
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board

99 
  Table 4.19
   Generation Installed Capacity (Mw) 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Source of Energy   Capacity(MW)   Firm Annual Generation 
Capability(MU)  
1   Hydel - KSEB   2008.65   7073.94  
2   Thermal - KSEB   234.6   1502  
3   Wind - KSEB   2.025   4  
4   Hydel - Pvt.   22.11   92.06  
5   Hydel - Captive   33   115  
6   Thermal  – Pvt (including cogenerator)   198.9   1376.71  
7   Wind - Pvt   32.85   69.93  
8   NTPC   359.58   2158  
  Total   2891.72   12391.64  
9   Hydro - rene wable      
  (1)KSEBL   103.9   372.94  
  (2)Pvt.   22.11   89.2  
10   RES_MNRE(wind+cogeneration)   54.875   211.64  
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board 
 
 
 
Table : 4. 20  Transmission & Distribution Lines 2013- 14 
 
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board  Sl.No.   Year   Transmission and Distribution Lines(KM)  
LT  
220 KV   110 KV   66KV   33KV   22KV   11KV  
1   2012 - 13   2761   4178   2166   1599   160.59   52907   263620  
2   2013 - 14   52765   4260   2202   1719   160.59   53579   264117

100 
   
Table : 4.21     Generation of Power at Different Stations in (MU) 2013- 14 Sl.  
No.   Station   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1 .    Brahmapuram,Kochi   83.59   29.04  
2 .    BSES(Thermal - IPP)   131.3319   337.92  
3 .    Chembukadavu   9.52   12.42  
4 .    Idamalayar   249.92   386.07  
5 .    Idukky   1575.01   2738.72  
6 .    Kakkad   141.17   247.65  
7 .    Kallada   25.54   67.55  
8 .    Kanjikode(wind farm)   1.763   1.8  
9 .    Kayamkulam   1517.59   947.15  
10 .    KPCL(IPP) - Kasargode   2.6   0  
11 .    Kozhikkode(KDPP)   449.11   191.83  
12 .    Kuttiyadi   505.67   842.42  
13 .    Kuthunkal(Hydro Captive) - Idukki   22.95   42.48  
14 .    Lower periyar   356.82   601  
15 .    Lower Meenmutty   8.01   5.62  
16 .    Maniyar(PVT)   21.49   39.72  
17 .    Mattupe tty - Idukki   2.49   5.75  
18 .    Malankara   26.69   30.38  
19 .    Neriyamangalam   232.32   365.76  
20 .    Pallivasal   176.89   215.53  
21 .    Panniyar   90.69   170.32  
22 .    Peppara   3.69   7.6  
23 .    Poringalkuthu   130.44   122.69  
24 .    Poringal LBE   99.86   114.03  
25 .    Sabarigiri   864.71   1635.44  
26 .    Sengulam   107.69   141.9  
27 .    Sholayar   210.2   233.63  
28 .    Urumi1&2 - Kozhikode   10.79   13.67  
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board

101 
   
Table : 4.22  Electricity Generating Capacity of Kerala (MW) Sl. 
No.   Sector   Generating capacity  
2008 - 09   2009 - 10   2010 - 11   2011 - 12   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1   Publ ic (State)  
2124.72   2130.97   2230.9   2244.03   2245.275   2245.275  
2   Public (Central)  
359.58   359.58   359.58   359.58   359.58   359.58  
3   Private  
254.736   255.48   272.08   272.09   275.05   286.9  
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board 
 
 
Table :  4.23  Electricity Generating Capacity of Kerala (MU)  Sl. 
No.   Sector   Generating capacity  
2008 - 09   2009 - 10   2010 - 11   2011 - 12   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1   Public (State)   6450.41   7201.85   7371.85   8303.45   5348.14   8177.94  
2   Public (Central)   949.48   1153.89   1008.23   486.36   1517.6   947.15  
3   Private   979. 66   776.35   385.06   221.78   274.62   514.61  
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board

102 
   
Table : 4.24   Category  wise sales of energy in Kerala (in MU) 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Category   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1 .     Domestic   8313.36   8739.51  
2 .     Commercial   2224.06   2229.33  
3 .     Industria l LT   1101.96   1096.57  
4 .     Industrial HT&EHT   3905.15   4035.49  
5 .     Public lighting   313.2   319.06  
6 .     Agriculture   306.08   310.24  
7 .     Railways   173.67   200.69  
8 .     Licence   500.76   523.15  
9 .     Export   0.97   1414.6  
10 .     Total   16839.21   18868.64  
 
Source : Kerala State Electricity Board

103 
   
Table :  2.2 5     Electricity Generating Capacity, Maximum Demand And Load Factor  
 
Sl.No   Year   Installed 
Capacity   Energy input to 
system excl.aux.cons. 
& ext.losses 
(Gen+Purchases -
Export) (MU)   Maximum 
demand 
(MW)   Load 
factor   (%)  
1 .     1990 - 91   1477   6794.1   1273.7   60.89  
2 .     1991 - 92   1477   7153.62   1308.8   62.39  
3 .     1992 - 93   1477   7219.79   1403   58.74  
4 .     1993 - 94   1484   7809.17   1459.6   61.08  
5 .     1994 - 95   1503.53   8794.39   1614.6   62.18  
6 .     1995 - 96   1505.3   9274.07   1651.4   64.11  
7 .     1996 - 97   1508.53   8771.25   1572   63 .69  
8 .     1997 - 98   1775.81   9394.67   1785.8   60.05  
9 .     1998 - 99   2046.33   11164.61   1896.2   67.21  
10 .     1999 - 00   2350.71   11880.98   2177   62.3  
11 .     2000 - 01   2422.61   12464   2316   61.43  
12 .     2001 - 02   2605.91   12518.31   2333   61.25  
13 .     2002 - 03   2608.71   12391.13   2347   60.27  
14 .     2003 - 04   2621.31   12280.8 7   2426   57.79  
15 .     2004 - 05   2623.86   12504.84   2420   58.99  
16 .     2005 - 06   2650.41   13331.03   2578   59.03  
17 .     2006 - 07   2662.96   14427.96   2742   60.07  
18 .     2007 - 08   2676.66   15065.15   2745   62.65  
19 .     2008 - 09   2744.76   15293.41   2765   63.14  
20 .     2009 - 10   2752.96   16982.29   2998   64.66  
21 .     2010 - 11   2869. 56   17340.28   3119   63.47  
22 .     2011 - 12   2878.36   18938.81   3348   64.57  
23 .     2012 - 13   2880.22   19877.16   3268   69.43  
24 .    
2013 - 14   2891.72   20525.16   3588   65.3  
 
Source: Kerala State Electricity Board

104 
  Table :  4.26
  The detail of Indian standards for maximum permissible limits for Industrial  
                      effluent discharges   Sl. 
No.   Parameter   Into Inland 
Surface 
Waters Indian 
Standards 
2490 (1974)   Into Public 
Sewers 
Indian 
Standards: 
3306 (1974)   On land for 
Irrigation 
Indian 
Standards: 
3307 (1974)   Marine 
Coastal 
Area  
1   2   3   4   5   6  
1   pH   5.5 - 9.0   5.5 - 9.0   5.5 - 9.0   5.5 - 9.1  
2   Biological  oxygen  demand 
(for 5 days at 20oC)   30   350   100   100  
3   Chemical oxygen demand   250   -   -   250  
4   Suspended solids   100   600   200  
 
5   Total  dissolved  solids 
(inorganic)   2100   2100   2100   -  
6   Temperature ( o
C)   40   45   -   45  
7   Oil and grease   10   20   10   20  
8   Phenolic Compounds   1   5   -   5  
9   Cyanides   0.2   2   0.2   0.2  
10   Sulphides   2   -   -   5  
11   Fluorides   2   15   -   15  
12   Total residual chlorine   1   -   -   1  
13   Pesticides   -   -   -   -  
14   Arsenic   0.2   0.2   0.2   0.2  
15   Cadmium   2   1   -   2  
16   Chromium (hexavalent)   0.1   2   -   1  
17   copper   3   3   -   3  
18   Lead   0.1   1   -   1  
19   Mercury   0.01   0.01   -   0.01  
20   Nickel   3   3   -   5  
21   Selenium   0.05   0.05   -   0.05  
22   Zinc   5   15   -   15  
23   Chlorides   1000   1000   600   -  
24   Boron   2   2   2   -  
25   Sulphates   1000   1000   1000   -  
26   Sodiu m (%)   -   60   60   -  
27   Ammoniacal nitrogen   50   50   -   50  
28   Radioactive materials  
       
29   Alpha  emitters  (milli 
curie/millilitre)   10 - 7
  10 - 7
  10 - 8
  10 - 7
 
30   Beta  emitters  (μ 
curie/millilitre)   10 - 6
  10 - 6
  10 - 7
  10 - 6
 
Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics India 
2014

105 
   
Table : 4.27    Average Gaseous composition of Dry air in the Troposphere  Sl. 
No.   Gas  
Percent by volume (%)   Parts  per million 
(ppm)  
1 .     Nitrogen   78.080000   780840.00  
2 .     Oxygen   20.946000   209460.00  
3 .     Argon   0.934000   9340.00  
4 .     Carbon dioxide   0.039000   390.00  
5 .     Neon   0.001818   18.18  
6 .     Helium   0.000524   5.24  
7 .     Methane   0.000179   1.79  
8 .     Krypton   0.000114   1.14  
9 .     Hydrogen   0.000055   0.55  
10 .     �;enon   0.000009   0.09  
11 .     Ozone   Variable   �a0.001 -   0.3 (variable)  
 
Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics 2014 India. 
 
  Rapidly  increasing  industrialization,  urbanization,  population,  growth  and  demand  for 
transportation  along  with  meteorological  conditions  influence  air  pollution  in  many  Indian  cities.  
In  general  combustion  is  the  chief  contributor  to  outdoor  air  pollution.  In  most  cities,  the  major 
source  of  combustion  is  fuel  use,  which  tends  to  increase  along  with  the  population  size  and 
economic activity. 
  The  air  breathe  can  become  contaminated  with  pollutants  viz.  Sulphur  dioxide  (SO 2), 
oxides  of  Nitrogen  (NO x),  Carbon  monoxide  (CO),  Ozone  (O
3)  and  particulate  matter  form 
various  natural  and manmade  sources.  In  recent  years,  the  focus  of  ambient  air  quality  largely 
includes not only criteria air pollutants, but also other toxic air pollutants. 
Particulate Pollutants 
  Particulate  matter  (PM)  is  a  complex  mixture  of  suspended  solid  and  liquid  particle  in 
semi  equilibrium.  The  particles  constituents  vary  greatly  in  size,  composition,  concentration, 
depending on origin and age. The size distributions of airborne particles are important f or health 
impact. The particles larger than 10µm in diameter are deposited almost exclusively in the nose 
and  throat  whereas  those  smaller  than  1µm  reach  the  lower  regions  of  the  lung.  The

106 
  intermediate  size  range  gets  deposited  between  these  two  extremes  of  the  respiratory  tract.  
Outdoor (ambient) PM size ranges from approximately 0.001-100 µm in aerodynamic diameter. 
PM  is  considered  as  the  single  best  indicator  of  potential  harm.  There  are  two  main  size 
categories for PM measured in ambient air. 
Environment Protection Rules Schl:38 
i.  Implementation of the following Pollution Control Measures:   
a) Dust containment cum suppression system of the equipment. 
b) Construction of wind breaking walls 
c) Construction of metalled roads within the premises 
d) Regular cleaning and wetting of the ground within the premises. 
e) Growing of a green belt along the periphery. 
 
ii)  Quantitative standards for the SPM: 
The  suspended  particulate  matter  contribution  value  at  a  distance  of  40  meters  from  a 
controlled  isolated  as  well  as  from  a  unit  located  should  be  less  than  600  mg  NM3.    The 
measurements are to be conducted at least twice a month for all the 12 months in a year.

107 
   
Table :  4.28  Summary of Health Effects of Basic Air Pollutant 
  Pollutant   Health Effects  
Carbon Mono xide   Poor  reflexes  
Ringing in the ears  
Headache  
Dizziness  
Nausea  
Breathing  difficulties  
Drowsiness  
Reduced  work capacity  
Comatose State(can lead to death)  
Lead (Pb)   Kidney damage  
Reproductive system damage  
Nervous  system  damage  (inc luding  brain  dysfunction 
and altered neuro physical behaviours)  
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)   Increased risk of viral infections  
Lung  irritation  (including  pulmonary  fibrosis  and 
emphysenal)  
Higher respiratory illness rates  
Airway resistance  
Chest  tig htness and discomfort  
Eye burning  
Head ache  
Ozone (O3)   Respiratory  system  damage(lun  damage  from  free 
radicals)  
Reduces mental activity  
Damage to cell lining(especially in nasal passage)  
Reduces effectiveness of the immune system  
Headache  
Ey e irritation  
Chest discomfort  
Breathing difficulties  
Chronic  lung  diseases  (including  asthma  and 
emphysema)  
Nausea  
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)   Aggravates heart and lung diseases  
Increase the risk for respiratory  illness (including chronic 
bronchitis,  asthma, pulmonary emphysema)  
Cancer(may not show for decades after exposure  
Respirable  Particute  matter 
(PM 10)   Respiratory  illness  (including  chronic  bronchitis 
increased asthma attacks, pulmonary emphysema)  
Aggravates he art disease  
 
Source : Kerala State Pollution Control Board

108 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
 
C HAPTER  -  V 
Land and Soil   
              
  erala  is  located on the southernmost tip  of India and embraces the coast of Arabian 
Sea  on  the  west  and  is  bounded  by  the  Western  Ghats  in  the  east.  This  South  Indian  state 
stretches from north to south along the coast line of 580 kms with an approximate breadth of 35 
to 120 kms. Lying within east longitudes 74 degree 52' and 72 degree 22' and north latitudes 8 
degree  18'  and  12  degree  48'  this  idyllic  land  of  pleasing  beauty  embraces1.18  %  area  of  the 
country with a total area of Kerala is 38, 863 Sq K
m.   Kerala  is  endowed  with  a  combination  of  distinct  altitudinal  variations  resulting  from  the 
rise  of  the  land mass  from 5 meters  below  sea  level  in  the  west  to  the  soaring  heights of  2695 
meters  in  the  east  within  the  short  span  of  120  km.  The  small  expanse  of  land  with  an  area        
of  38,863  km 2
  has  a  base  length  of  560  km  along  the  coast  and  width  ranging  from  11  Km        
to  124  Km.  Physiographically,  the  terrain  has  three  natural  regions  namely,  lowlands,  midland 
and   highlands.  Geologically,  Kerala  is  occupied  by  four  major  rock  formations  namely, 
crystalline rocks of Precambrian age, sedimentary rocks of Tertiary confined to Neogene period, 
laterites  capping  the  crystalline  and  sedimentary  rocks  and  recent  and  sub  recent  sediments 
forming  the  low-lying  areas  and  river  valleys.  There  are  sporadic  Paleozoic  granites  and 
pegmatite  and  Meso-Cenozoic  dykes  intruding  these  rocks.  The  oldest  rocks  so  far  dated  in 
Kerala  are  the  charnockites,  which  yielded  an  age  of  2930  +/-  50  Ma  (Soman,  1997&  2002). 
The  varied  rock  formations  under  different  geological  domains  harbour  different  mineral 
deposits and the transformed rock strata stockpile copious groundwater resource.   
          
Traditionally  Indian  soils  are  divided  into four  major  groups  namely  :  red,  black,  alluvial, 
and   laterite.  The  state  is  gifted  with  ten  soil  types  derived  from  the  laterite  base  and  has  12 
distinct agro climatic zones. The undulating topography, vibrant climate and vivacious hydrology 
in the background of ever active tectonics resulted in 44 river basins, 1750 sub basins and 4452 
mini  watersheds  providing  multitudes  of  lively  micro  ecosystems.  The  environment  of  these 
micro  watersheds  are  conducive  to  varying  crop  types,  such  as,  coconut  and  rice  in  the  sultry

109 
  lowlands,  rice,  tapioca,  banana,  arecanut,  coconut,  pepper,  cashew  and  rubber  in  hot  humid 
midlands and tea, coffee and cardamom in the cool subtropic highlands.  
 
The  Western  Ghats  -  The  mighty  Western  Ghats,  a  sequence  of  Rocky  Mountains, 
edges  the  eastern  boundary  of  Kerala  and  ascends  roughly  upto  1,500  m  above  sea 
level with the lofty peaks rising upto 2,500 m.  
 
Hill and Valleys  -  The narrow piece of land on th e eastern border, close to the Western 
Ghats,  encompasses  precipitous  hills,  deep  valleys  and  gorges  which  are  covered  with 
thick woods. Almost all the rivers of the state originate here.  
 
Midland  Plains -  These  plains  which  lie  along  central  Kerala,  are  loc ated  in  the  west  of 
the hills and mountains.  
 
Coastal  Belt  –   The  narrow  belt  of  coastal  land  along  the  Arabian  Sea  is  characterized 
by  paddy  fields,  rows  of  coconut  trees  and  serene,  and  backwaters  internally  linked  by 
rivers and inland waterways.  
 
Backwater s  and  Rivers  - The  Backwaters  consists  of  lakes  and  inlets  of  oceans  which 
straggle  out  in  the  land.  The  largest  backwater  is  the  Vembanad  Lake  which  stretches 
out  into  the  Arabian  Sea  at  Cochin  Port.  There  are  49  river/lakes  flowing  in  the  state  of 
Kerala
  among  them  46  flows  to  the  west  and  the  other  3  flow  to  the  east.  They  evolve 
from Western Ghats and rush towards the west into the Arabian Sea.  
 
Soil and Vegetation 
 
The state of Kerala with its wide array of topographical features such as coastlines alon g 
the  Arabian  Sea,  hills  of  the  Western  Ghats,  valleys,  abundant  waterbodies  ,is  the  reserve  of 
diverse  types  of  soil  such  as  red,  ferruginous,  sandy,  black,  peat  and  loamy  soil.  There  are  an 
assortment of flora and other plantation crops which grow in the se soils. The natural vegetation 
of  Kerala  comprises  3,872  flowering  plants  including  900  plants  of  great  medicinal  value.  The 
forested  regions  with  an  area  of  9,400  km²  comprises  tropical  wet  evergreen  partly
- evergreen 
forests with thick undergrowth  in th e  lower and mid altitudes, tropical damp and arid deciduous 
forests in the middle altitudes plus mountainous subtropical and temperate (shola) forests in the 
precipitous  hills.  Kerala  basically  thrives  on  agriculture.  The  main  crops  are  paddy,  coconut, 
pep
per,  cashew,  tapioca and plantation  crops  like  rubber ,  tea  and  coffee  and  other  cash crops 
like 
 spices, nutmeg, vanilla and cashew nut.

110 
  Land capability 
   
Land is degraded when it suffers a loss of  intrinsic qualities, decline in  its capabilities or 
loss  in  its  productive  capacity.  Land  degradation  may  be  due  to  natural  or  human  causes  or  it 
may  be  due  to  combination  of  both.  Considering  the  characteristics  of  soil,  drainage/wetness, 
erosion,  runoff  etc.,  Kerala  has  18  land  capability  subclass  association s  of  five  broad  land 
capability  (LC)  classes  (KSLUB,  1995  and  2002).  The  broad  LC  classes  are  Class  II  (Good 
cultivable  land),  Class  III  (Moderately  good  cultivable  land),  Class  IV  (Fairly  good  cultivable 
lands), Class VI (Well suited for forestry or grazing), and Class VIII (Land suited only for wildlife 
and  recreation).  The  approximate area under each class  is given  in  Figure2.  The soil  of  Kerala 
has  limitations  for  sustained  use  under  irrigation.  Only  about  37%  of  the  area  of  Kerala  is 
suitable for irrigation with certain limitations. 
 
Land Use Pattern 
Recently the land put under non – agricultural use has increased due to in developmental 
activities like housing, transport system, irrigation etc.The total geographical area of the State is 
3886287  Ha.  And  the  area  classified  according  to  thirteen  different  type  of  uses  of  land  during 
2013-14  which  is  presented  in  the  chart  given  below.    The  net  are  under  cultivation  during  the 
year  2013-14  was  20,50,994  Ha.,  which  occupies  52.78%  of  the  total  area  in  the  S tate.  The 
gross cropped area is 26,16,670 Ha.

111 
   
 
                     
Source: Agricultural Statistics 2013-14,  DES

112

113 
  Net  Area 
Sawn 
           Out of 38.86,287 Ha of total geographical area, 20,50,994 Ha of land constituting 52.78% 
is cultivated atleast once during the year 2013-14. There is slight  increase of 0.14% in net area 
sown compared to the previous year. 
 
Table  :  5.1  State  Level  estimate  of  Gross  Cropped  Area,  Net  Cropped  Area     
                 and   Cropping Intensity (2001-02 to 2013-14)  Sl.   No.   Year   Gross Cropped Area  
Ha   Net Cropped Area  
Ha   Cropping 
Intensity  
1 .     2001 - 02   2992252   2190690   136.59  
2 .     2002 - 03   2970384   2188537   135.72  
3 .     2003 - 04   2954454   2189940   134.91  
4 .     2004 - 05   2994666   2154885   138.97  
5 .     2005 - 06   2982454   2132483   139.86  
6 .     2006 - 07   2913873   21 01431   138.66  
7 .     2007 - 08   2761094   2089029   132. 17  
8 .     2008 - 09   2694943   2088955   129.01  
9 .     2009 - 10   2668678   2078715   128.38  
10 .     2010 - 11   2647461   2071507   127.80  
11 .     2011 - 12   2661757   2040132   130.47  
12 .     2012 - 13   2591734   2048109   126.54  
13 .     2013 - 14   2616670   2050994   127.58  
  
Source: Agricultural Statistics 2013-14,  DES

114 
  Stale level estimate of Gross Cropped Area and Net Cropped Area 
 
Source : Agricultural Statistics 2013-14, DES

115 
  Table :  5.2 Classification of Area on the Basis of Land Utilisation 2013-
14 
      (Area in Ha.) Classifica
tion
 	
Thiruvananthapuram
 	
Kollam
 	
Pathanamthitta
 	
Alappuzha
 	
Kottayam
 	
Iddukki
 	
Eranakulam
 	
Thrissur
 	
Palakkad
 	
Malappuram
 	
Kozhikkodu
 	
Wayanad
 	
Kannur
 	
Kasargodu
 	
State
  1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15  
16  
1 Geographical    
Area   218781   248788   265277   141011   220442   43 6328   305826   302919   447584   355446   234641   212966   297112   199166   3886287  
1   Forests  
49861   81438   155214   0   8141   198413   70617   103619   136257   103417   41386   78787   48734   5625   1081509  
2 Not Available 
for 
Cultivation(a�b
�c�d�e�f))   35130   35929   19631   35137   36359   26369   52 296   44671   62745   54752   34936   15342   41160   32306   526763  
(a) Non 
Agricultural 
Uses   30396   27247   16488   22567   27611   12700   40875   37613   45231   47363   29798   11295   32457   24185   405826  
(b) Barren and 
Uncultiable land   236   189   162   29   1231   1833   578   259   1795   1098   784   71   16 90   3700   13655  
c) Marshy Land  
6   24   0   33   0   0   29   4   0   0   5   0   96   0   197  
d) Still Water  
4342   6924   2698   12143   6360   10480   10410   6328   15340   6047   3933   3904   6472   4292   99673  
e)Water logged 
Area   90   1439   165   332   159   1   299   320   0   64   382   13   372   18   3654  
f)Social 
Forestry   60   106   118   33   998   1355   105   147   379   180   34   59   73   111   3758

116 
  3 Other 
Uncultivated 
Land Excluding 
fallow land 
(a+b+c)   394   1975   1966   15136   6390   2569   11192   8473   24492   6355   2688   998   8066   8904   99598  
a) Permanent 
pasturres and 
Other Grazing 
Land   0   0   0   0   0   0   0   3   0   3   0   0   2   0   8  
b) Land Under 
Miscellaneous 
Tree Cropes 
and groves not 
included in net 
Area sown   20   62   93   72   145   248   121   191   698   222   103   35   167   344   2521  
c)Cultiable 
Waste land   374   1913   1873   15064   6245   2321   11071   8279   23794   6130   2585   963   7897   8560   97069  
4)Fa llow Land 
(a+b)   3646   5380   7102   6033   9234   2867   19935   17771   26898   12533   3732   2695   6229   4267   128322  
a) Fallow Land 
Other than 
Current Fallows   660   1708   2974   2670   3108   1220   10350   8256   14152   4823   1581   589   3117   2138   57346  
b) Current 
Fallows   2986   3672   4128   3363   6126   1647   9585   9515   12746   7710   2151   2106   3112   2129   70976  
5)Net Area 
Sown(6 - 7)   129750   124066   81364   84705   161217   206110   151786   128385   197192   178389   151899   115144   192923   148064   2050994  
6)Gross 
Cropped 
Area(5+7)   159217   159584   101326   106619   199535   263171   1651 57   177618   301712   237098   200116   174190   219456   151871   2616670  
7)Area Sown 
more than Once   29467   35518   19962   21914   38318   57061   13371   49233   104520   58709   48217   59046   26533   3807   565676  
III Irrigated Area  
7658   3911   4987   38063   12395   37441   24752   63580   90012   30621   4931   13256   15980   49580   397167  
Source : Agricultural Statistics 2013-14, DES

117 
                                                            
Classification of Area on the Basis of Land Utilisation 2013- 14  
    (Area in Ha.)   Source : Agricultural Statistics 2013-14, DES

118 
   
Table : 5.3  Net Area Irrigated Source wise  2013- 14 
Unit - Hectare Sl.  
No   District   Small stream  
(Thode/ Canal)   Pond   Well  Borewell/
 	
Tubewell
 	
Lift& Minor
 	
Irrigation
  From River & Lake  
Other 
Sources   Grand 
Total  	
Govt
 	
Pr
ivate
 	
Govt
 	
Private
 	
Govt
 	
Private
 	
Pump
 	
Wheel
 	
Other
 	
Methods
 	
Total
 
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
1   Thiruvanantha -
puram   2911   170   554   18   0   2736   84   888   0   0   0   0   297   7658  
2   Kollam   1166   1   40   85   15   1854   11   0   0   0   1   1   738   3911  
3   Pathanamthitta   2795   11   16   44   0   2118   2   0   0   0   1   1   0   4987  
4   Alappuzha   1855   0   0   282   1   887   6420   0   2972   0   23388   26360   2258   38063  
5   Kottayam   6   105   0   182   0   1561   15   0   35   0   10491   10526   0   12395  
6   Idukki   1231   10   4   14936   4   5376   2784   3   36   0   10258   10294   2799   37441  
7   Ernakulam   8647   11   434   1 748   0   7131   532   4276   1051   0   568   1619   354   24752  
8   Thrissur   15313   0   165   3272   60   35060   1090   816   1177   0   20   1197   6607   63580  
9   Palakkad   41374   95   764   4596   118   12757   10316   674   10534   0   1277   11811   7516   90012  
10   Malappuram   2426   552   243   4275   151   16733   942   1279   1164   0   2453   3617   403   30621  
11   Kozhikkode   1004   15   1   453   3   2372   47   2   160   0   97   257   777   4931  
12   Wayanad   48   0   0   24   0   182   0   75   137   0   19   156   12771   13256  
13   Kannur   364   109   25   1331   16   9894   383   12   160   0   581   741   3105   15980  
14   Kasargode   867   369   180   11611   0   25821   7377   0   2907   0   115   3022   333   49580  
  STATE   80007   1448   2426   42857   368   124482   30003   8025   20333   0   49269   69602   37958   397167  
 
Source : Agricultural Statistics 2013-14, DES

119 
  Table : 5.4  Gross Area Under  Irrigation (Crop wise) 2013-
14 
(Area in Ha.) Sl.  
No.   District   Pa ddy   	Vegetables
 	
 	Coconut
 	
Arecanut
 	
Cloves
 	
Nutmeg
 	
Banana
 	
Betel Leaves
 	
Sugar cane
 	
Other Crops
 	
Total
 	
Autumn
 	
Winter
 	
Summer
 	
 	Total
 
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10   11   12   13   14   15   16  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   873   993   133   1999   1080   2145   3   0   0   2343   14   0   1810   9394  
2   Kollam   48   937   5   990   987   438   14   0   0   1407   30   0   23   3889  
3   Pathanamthitta   2   488   1964   2454   821   1025   31   2   514   1652   22   16   138   6675  
4   Alappuzha   5613   10847   19626   36086   1303   6823   4   0   77   423   47   45   1331   46139  
5   Kottayam   1087   6817   7823   15727   1346   121   6   104   1478   718   7   7   202   19716  
6   Idukki   62   560   39   661   4702   602   90   76   1607   1148   0   1660   79   10625  
7   Ernakulam   580   2707   433   3720   1948   11648   1342   9   6046   4609   7   0   2862   32191  
8   Thrissur   7   12552   7884   20443   1434   44122   4555   10   6523   2331   2   0   4690   84110  
9   Palakkad   2708   42373   4642   49723   3748   26118   3658   1   167   15637   5   471   8378   107906  
10   Malappuram   8   4162   1798   5968   1194   19443   5344   3   269   5419   173   0   1587   39400  
11   Kozhikkode   0   2   563   565   510   2761   269   0   194   1547   7   0   193   6046  
12   Wayanad   0   9915   1522   11437   637   54   60   0   1   6633   0   0   2   18824  
13   Kannur   0   2285   20   2305   851   12403   1666   3   43   1967   1   0   509   19748  
14   Kasargod   2   1542   407   1951   505   38677   17440   34   126   478   17   1   4428   63657  
STATE   10990   96180   46859   154029   21066   166380   34482   242   17045   46312   332   2200   26232   468320  
Source : Agricultural Statistics
2013-14, DES

120
 
   
Table : 5.5  Area & Production of Important Crops in Kerala  2013- 14  Sl.  
No.   Crops   Area(Ha)   Production(Tonnes)  
2001 - 02   2013 - 14   % 
V ariation   2001 - 02   2013 - 14   % 
Variation  
1   Paddy!!   322368   199611   - 38   703504   564325   - 20  
2   Tapioca   111189   67589   - 39   2455880   2479070   1  
3   Coconut*   905718   808647   - 11   5479   5921   8  
4   Pepper   203956   84065   - 59   58240   29408   - 50  
5   Cashew   89718   49105   - 45   65867   33375   - 49  
6   Rubber   475039   548225   15   580350   648220   12  
7   Groundnut   2437   710   - 71   1812   868   - 52  
8   Sesamum   878   265   - 70   284   88   - 69  
9   Cotton#   3760   177   - 95   6069   284   - 95  
10   Pulses   8191   2989   - 64   6281   3019   - 52  
11   Ginger(Dry)   10706   4538   - 58   40181   21521   - 46  
12   Turmeric   35 58   2430   - 32   7895   6253   - 21  
13   Banana   50871   62261   22   345903   531299   54  
14   Tobaco   71   9   - 87   395   17   - 96  
15   Total Cereals   329875   199937   - 39   708624   564635   - 20  
16   Arecanut*   93193   100008   7   84681   100018   18  
17   Coffee   84795   85359   1   66690   66645   0  
18   Tea   36899   3020 5   - 18   66090   62938   - 5  
 
Source: Agricultural Statistics2013-14,  DES 
!! Paddy 
* Production in million nuts 
# Production in bales of 170 kg

121
 
  Table : 5.6  Area, Production, Productivity of Plantation Crops upto 2014 
Area Ha.   2010 - 11   2011 - 12   2012 - 13   2014  
Ker ala   India   Kerala   India   Kerala   Kerala  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7  
Tea   36965   580181   37028   NA   30205   30205  
Coffee   84931   404645   85359   409690   85359   85359  
Rubber   534230   661980   539565   NA   545000   548225  
Cardamom   41242   71170   41600   71110   41600   39730  
Production  
Tea   57291   9667 33   57903   NA   62963   62937  
Coffee   65650   302000   68175   314000   68175   66645  
Rubber   770580   861950   788940   NA   800050   648220  
Cardamom   7935   10380   10222   15000   10222   14000  
Productivity (kg/Ha)  
Tea   1550   1666   15643   NA   2085   #2084  
Coffee   773   746   799   766   799   *781  
Rubb er   1442   1302   ***1931   NA   ***1903   NA  
Cardamom   192   146   246   182   246   352  
 
Source : Economic Review 
*Coffee Board 
#Tea Board 
***
Rubber Board

122
 
  Table : 5.7  Chemical Fertilizers utilization in Kerala 2002-03 to 2013-
14 
  Year   Nitrogen   Phosphorous   Pottash   Total  
N: (P+K)%  
Kerala   India  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7  
2002 - 03   29.18   13.53   26.19   68.90   86.00   73  
2003 - 04   28.92   13.20   22.93   65.05   89.80   80  
2004 - 05   29.87   14.14   24.2   68.21   98.34   78  
2005 - 06   28.00   15.00   25.00   68.00   104.50   70  
2006 - 07   31.00   16.00   43.00   89.00   113.26   53  
200 7 - 08   32.00   15.00   25.00   72.00   117.07   80  
2008 - 09   38.00   19.00   32.00   89.00   NA   74  
2009 - 10   39.00   20.00   32.00   91.00   NA   75  
2010 - 11   40.00   24.00   33.00   97.00   NA   70  
2011 - 12   44.00   22.00   32.00   98.00   NA   81  
2012 - 13   52.00   16.00   26.00   94.00   NA   124  
2013 - 14   53.00   27.00   45.00   125.00   NA   73  
 
Source: Agricultural Department
,  CMIE

123
 
   
                              Chemical Fertilizers utilization in Kerala 2002-03 to 2013-
14   Source: Agricultural Department
,  CMIE

124
 
   
Table : 5.8  Soil Types in Kerala (District-Wise)   
 
  District   Type of Soil   Details of location  
Thiruvananthapuram      Fairly rich brown loam of   
        laterite  
   Sandy loam  
   Rich dark brown loam of   
        granite origin   Middle part of the district  
 
Western coastal region  
 
Easte rn hilly parts of the district  
Kollam      Sandy loam  
 
 
   Laterite soil   Karunagappally and part of Kollam 
taluks  
Kottarakkara , Kunnathur and parts 
of Kollam and Pathanapuram taluks  
Pathanamthitta      Clay soil  
 
 
   Laterite soil   Western and Eastern hilly regions  
 
Par ts of Ranni and Kozhencheri 
taluks  
Alappuzha      Sandy loam  
 
 
   Sandy soil  
 
   Clay loam with much   
        acidity  
 
   Laterite soil   Karthikappally and parts of 
Mavelikkara taluks  
 
Cherthala & Ambalappuzha taluks  
Kuttanad  
 
Chengannur and parts of 
Mavelikkara taluks  
Kottayam      Laterite soil  
 
 
   Alluvial soil   Parts of Changanacherry and 
Kottayam taluks and Kanjirappally 
and Meenachil taluks.  
 
Vaikom taluk and part of 
Changanacherry and Kottayam 
taluks  
Idukki      Laterite soil  
   Alluvial soil   Peermade and Thodupuzha taluks  
Devic olam and Udumbanchola 
taluks  
Ernakulam      Laterite soil  
 
   Sandy loam  
 
   Alluvial soil   Muvattupuzha, Kothamangalam 
and part of Aluva and Kunnathunad 
taluks  
Parur, Kochi and Kanayannur 
taluks  
Parts of Aluva and  Kunnathunad 
taluks

125
 
  Thrissur      Sandy loam  
 
 
   Laterite  soil  
 
 
   Clayey soil  
 
   Alluvial soil   Part of Mukundapuram, Thrissur 
and Chavakkad taluks  
 
Eastern part of Thrissur and 
Western part of Thalappally taluks  
 
Back - water area of Chavakkad and 
Mukundapuram taluks  
Portions of Chavakkad taluk  
Palakkad      Laterite soil  
   Black soil   Major part of the district  
North - Eastern part of Chittur taluk  
Malappuram      Laterite soil  
 
   Sandy soil   Interior region of the district  
Along the costal belt of the district  
Kozhikode      Laterite soil  
 
 
   Sandy soil   Major part of the district except 
c oastal strip  
 
Coastal strip  
Wayanad      Laterite soil  
   Loamy soil   Major part of the district  
Valleys in the middle portion of the 
district  
Kannur      Laterite soil  
 
 
   Sandy soil   Major part of the district except 
coastal strip  
 
Coastal strip  
Kasaragod      Laterite soi l  
 
 
   Sandy soil   Major part of the district except 
coastal strip  
 
Coastal strip  
 
Source: Department of Agriculture

126
 
  Mineral Based Industries in the State 
               Kerala  State  is  endowed  with  a  number  of  occurrences/deposits  of  minerals  such  as 
Heavy  Mineral  Sands  (  Ilmenite,  Rutile,  Zircon,  Monazite,  Sillimanite)  ,Gold,  Iron  ore,  Bauxite, 
Graphite, China Clay, Fire Clay, Tile and Brick Clay, Silica Sand, Lignite, Limestone, Limeshell, 
Dimension  Stone  (Granite),  Gemstones,  Magnesite,  Steatite  etc. 
Howe ver, mining activities on large scale are confined mainly to a 
few  minerals 
-  Heavy  Mineral  Sands,  China  Clay  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  Limestone/Limeshell,  Silica  Sand  and  Granite.  In  fact, 
Heavy mineral sand and China Clay contribute
  more than 90% of 
the to
tal value of mineral production in the State.  
The  State  owns  mineral  deposits  like  china  clay  (kaolin), 
limestone,  limeshell,  silica  sand,  bauxite,  graphite,  iron  ore, 
granite  etc.  The  major  mineral  based  industries  like  Indian  Rare 
Earths  Ltd.,  Kerala  Minerals  and  Metals  Ltd.,  Chavara;  Malabar 
Cements, Walayar; Travancore Cements Ltd., Kottayam; Kundara 
Ceramics, Kollam; English Indian Clays Ltd. (EICL), Thiruvananthapuram; Excel Glass Industry, 
Alappuzha;  Kerala  Clays  and  Ceramic  Products  Ltd.,  Palayangadi,  Kannur  are  some  of  the 
mineral based industries working in the State since several years. The resources of ornamental 
granites in the state are being exported to different countries. 
Mining Lease in Kerala 
  There  are  83  major  mineral  mines  that  are  mined  in  the  State.  Also  there  are3024 
licensed minor mineral quarries in the state.  Government gets revenue from minerals mainly by 
way of royalty. Revenue collected during the year 2012-13 is Rs.49.7 crore which is 12% higher 
than  the  previous  year  collection  of  Rs.44.3  crore.    Total  area  covered  by  mining  leases  is 
3314.52 ha.  
Mineral Development and Mining Leases Division  
This  division  is  responsible  for  the  implementation  of  Mines  and  Minerals  (Regulation 
and Development) Act, 1957, The Mineral concession Rules,1960 and the Kerala Minor Mineral 
Concession  Rules,1967.  This  function  is  being  executed  through  14  District  Offices,  and  3

127
 
  Kerala  Mineral  Squads  (Southern,  Central  and  Northern  Region)  with  their  head  quarters  at 
Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur and Kozhikode respectively. 
The main activities of Mineral Development and Mining Lease Division are as follows:  
  Recommending  to  State  Government  to  grant/  renewal  of  mining  leases  and  prospecting 
licences in respect of major minerals. 
  Grant/renewal  of  quarrying  permits,  quarrying  leases  and  dealer's  licences  in  respect  of  major minerals. 
  Inspection  of  mines  and  quarries  and  enforcement  of  relevant  rules  and  regulations  by  virtue  of  the  powers  vested  with  it  under  the  Mines  and  Minerals  (Development  & 
Regulation)  Act,  1957,  the  Minerals  Concession  Rules,  1960  and  the  Kerala  Minor  Mineral 
Concession Rules, 1967. 
  Collection of revenue on both major as well as minor minerals. 
  Curbing of illegal mining and clandestine movement of minerals. 
  Attending to court cases in connection with mining and movement of minerals. 
  Collection  of  data  on  production/sales/consumption  of  major  and  minor  minerals  and  furnishing  the  required  information  to  government  of  India  and  other  Central/  State 
institutions .   
Table : 5.9  Mineral wise details of area covered by mining leases 2013- 14  Sl.No.   Minerals   Place Ha.  
1   China Clay   03.1078  
2   Silica Sand   24.5063  
3   Bauxite   -  
4   Lime shell/Seashell   -  
5   Lime stone   -  
6   Mineral sand   184.8  
7   Quartz   -  
8   Laterite   07.5704  
  Total   219.9845  
     
Source :-Mining &Geology

128
 
   
Table : 5.10  Production and Royalty of Minerals in Kerala-  2013-14  Sl.
No.   Major Minerals   Production in Tonnes   Royalty(Rs.)  
2012 - 13   2013 - 14   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1 .     China Clay   434121.88   904663   10853047   15379264  
2 .     Lime Stone   560828.95   4557 81   35332224   28714206  
3 .     Iliminite   128348.9   84247   26568222   25611098  
4 .     Silica Sand   88081.64   76890   12597104   12917482  
5 .     Limeshell   43470.97   37333   2738671   2351981  
6 .     Latrate   107683.96   190591   10445344   21917944  
7 .     Zircon   7919.35   3861   14832938   8340801  
8 .     Sillimianite   5 161   8905   1424332   1896705  
9 .     Rutile   5236   2830   7707021   6632488  
10 .     Graphite   696   628   45240   36400  
11 .     Quatz   3488.37   1570   150000   67500  
12 .     Bauxite Ilmonite   483   49   584000   65574  
  Minor Minerals  
    2012 - 13   2013 - 14   2012 - 13   2013 - 14  
1   Granite(Building 
stone)   15227650.75   1 3973155   243642412   223570485  
2   River sand   2629390.8   1893766   26293908   18937663  
3   Ordinary sand   3187035.7   1914116   31870357   19141156  
4   Laterite   2070631.5   2578368   33130104   412538889  
5   Brick Clay   1515292.5   1243116   15152925   12431163  
6   Lime shell   4804.66   7450   240233   469375  
7   Granite(dimension 
stone (cubic mtrs)   1245.11   1219   4980445   4877084  
8   Ordinary earth   880443   4827325   17608862   965464995  
 
Source : Department of Mining &Geology

129
 
  Individual Mineral Deposits Mineral Sand 
The  Heavy  Mineral  Sand  deposits  in  Kerala  contain  an  assemblage  of  Ilmenite,  Rutile, 
Leucoxene,  Monazite,  Zircon  and  Sillimanite.  The  State  possesses  one  of  the  world  class 
deposits  of  mineral  sands  in  the  coastal  tracts  between  Neendakara  and  Kayamkulam.  This, 
commonly known as the Chavara  deposit, after the main locality, covers a total length of 22 km 
and  a  width  of  about  8  km  in  the  northern  side  and  6  km  in  the  southern  side.  The  Chavara 
barrier  beach  portion  contains  concentration  of  heavy  minerals  above  60%.  The  Chavara 
deposit  is estimated to contain 127 million tonnes of heavy minerals with  ilmenite  content of 80 
million  tonnes  from  the  total  reserve  of  raw  sand  of  the  order  of  1400  million  tonnes.  In  the 
northern portion  beyond  Kayamkulam  Pozhi  extending  up  to  Thottappally  in  Alappuzha  district, 
the  total  reserve  of  heavy  minerals  estimated  to  the  order  of  17  million  tonnes  with  ilmenite 
content of 9 million tonnes from the raw sand of 242 million tonnes. 
Chavara barrier beach with a width of 225 m is divided into 8 blocks numbered     I to VIII 
for separating ilmenite for the manufacture of TiO2. The blocks are apportioned between Kerala 
Minerals and Metals Ltd. (KMML),a State Government undertaking and Indian Rare Earths Ltd. 
(IRE),  a  Government  of  India  enterprise  under  the  Department  of  Atomic  Energy.    Apart  from 
the Chavara heavy mineral deposits a number of heavy mineral placers have been delineated in 
different parts of the State.

130
 
   
Table : 5.11  Heavy Mineral Deposits in Kerala 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Locality   Total 
Heavy 
Minerals   Ilmen ite   Rutile   Zircon   Monazite   Sillimanite  
1   Chavara  Major 
Deposit    127.09   79.45   5.38   4.82   0.82   28.72  
2   Northern  contiguity  of 
Chavara deposit*   16.93   9.03   0.64   0.40   0.17   5.66  
3   Southern Kerala�A    1.83   1.15   0.11   0.12   0.05   0.27  
4   Northern Kerala�    3.35   0.53   0 .01   0.05   0.003   0.80  
 
* Kayamkulam-Arattupuzha-Thrikkunnapuzha-Thottapally 
^ Kannimalssery-Neendakara-Maleppuram-Odetti, Anjengo-Vettoor, Veli-Kazhakuttom, Vizhinjam-
Kovalam-Pachallur 
$ Valapattanam-Azhikode, Ponnani-Chavakkadu  
 
 
Heavy Mineral Deposits in Kerala

131
 
  Table : 5.12  Heavy Mineral Deposits in Kerala 2013-
14 
  Sl. No.   Locality   Oxidised 
(million tonne)   % of Fe   Unoxidised 
(million tonne)   % of Fe   Total     (million 
tonne)  
1 .     Eleyettimala   14.7   39.4   4.5   31.5   19.2  
2 .     Na duvallur    6.1   39.8   3.7   33.7   9.8  
3 .     Nanminda    4.3   41.2   -   -   4.3  
4 .     Cheruppa   3.2   35.5   7.5   31.7   10.7  
5 .     Alampara   9.0   35.6   26.2   35.2   35.2  
6 .     Korattimala   1.9   37.7   2.5   33.6   4.4  
 
Bauxite
 
   Bauxite  occurs  in  close  association  with  laterite  all  along  the  west  coast  of  the  State. 
Traces  of  bauxite  are  seen  in  almost  all  laterite  cappings.  But  bauxite  deposits  of  economic 
significance in south Kerala are a few and are located at Sooranad, Vadakkumuri, Chittavattom, 
and  Adichanallur  in  Kollam  district  and  Mangalapuram,  Chilambil,  Sasthavattom  and  Attipra 
areas of Thiruvananthapuram district. Geological Survey of India (GSI) and Mineral Exploration 
Corporation  Ltd.  (MECL)  have  conducted  extensive  studies  of  bauxite  occurrence  of  Kasargod 
and  Kannur  districts  in  North  Kerala  during  the  period  between  1968-'74  including  geological 
mapping,  pitting,  drilling  and  sampling.  Based  on  various  investigations,  the  total  bauxite 
reserves  in  the  State  are  estimated  at  12.5  million  tonnes.  The  largest  bauxite  deposits  are  in 
Nileswaram with a reserve of 5.32 million tonnes.   
China  Clay  
China  Clay  (Kaolin)  consisting  dominantly  of  kaolinite  is  one  of  the  most  sophisticated 
industrial minerals with a host of applications, viz.,  in ceramics, 
refractories,  paper  coating,  filler  for  rubber,  insecticides, 
cement,  paint,  textiles,  fertilizers  and  others  including 
abrasives, asbestos products, fibreglass, chemicals, cosmetics, 
pharmaceuticals, electrical ware, foundry and glass. 
The  Department  of  Mining  and  Geology  through  their  past 
investigation  campaigns  in  parts  of Kerala,  identified  two  major 
china  clay  zones  viz.,  the  southern  china  clay  zone  between 
Kundara  and  Thiruvananthapuram  (Thiruvananthapuram  and

132
 
  Kollam  districts)  and  the  northern  china  clay  zone  between  Kannapuram  Madayi  - 
Cheruthazham  in  Kannur  district  to  Nileswarm  -  Manjeshwaram  in  Kasargod  district.  Kerala 
china clay is one of the finest quality clay and is world class. In fact, Kaolin marketed by English 
Indian  Clays  Ltd.  (EICL),  Thiruvananthapuram  claims  to  have  similar  or  e ven  better  properties 
compared to imported clays. 
Production
 
   The  paper  coating  grade  china  clay  is  produced  by  English  Indian  Clays  Ltd., 
Thiruvananthapuram and Kerala Ceramics Ltd., Kundara. Ceramic grade high quality china clay 
is  produced  by  Kerala  Clays  and  Ceramic  Products  Ltd.  (KCCP)  from  their  mines  at 
Kannapuram and Pazhayangadi, Kannur District and Pudukai, Kasargod District. Among the 25 
working  china  clay  mines  in  Kerala,  17  are  in  Thiruvananthapuram,  4  in  Kollam,  and  2  each  in 
Kannur and in Kasargod districts, and these jointly produced 4,47,000 tonnes in 2000 -'01 fiscal. 
Kerala  has a  prominent  place  in  the  refined clay  map of  the  country,  contributing about  58% of 
the national annual out put. Being the largest producer of high grade processed  china clay,  the 
enormous export potential and relatively good infrastructure like ports, road and rail links, Kerala 
is yet to make a mark in the export of china clay.   
Potential for China Clay Industries 
The very large reserves of china clay,  identified  and proved by the Department, calls for 
new  mining  ventures  and  clay  based  industries.  The  Data  Repository  of  the  Department  and 
Kerala  Clay  Data  Book  of  Regional  Research  Laboratory, 
Thiruvananthapuram  have  adequate  data  and  information 
on  china  clay  in  Kerala.  Jointly  these  database  provide 
most  useful  baseline  data,  like  color,  plasticity,  tensile 
strength and particle size, to diverse users and industries. 
Ball Clay 
Ball  clay  (inferred  reserve of  5.67 million  tonnes)  is 
found to occur in certain areas in Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam, Thrissur and Kannur districts. 
Though  it  does  not  conform  to  specification  of  ball  clays,  yet  it  is  considered  to  be  a  good 
substitute. At present, there is no commercial production.

133
 
   
Fire Clay 
The  fire  clay  occurrences  are  in  association  with  Tertiary  sediments  in  the  coastal  land 
and the inferred reserve stands at 11.50 million tonnes. However, this resource is waiting to be 
exploited.  
Tile and Brick Clay 
The  tile  and  brick  clays  are  usually  of  low  grade  and  red  burning.  The  main  requisites 
are  that  they  should  mould  easily  and  burn  hard  at  low  temperature.  There  are  about  400  tile 
factories and about 5000 brick kilns spread over the entire state to manufacture tile and bricks. 
The  vast  resources  of  alluvial  clays  in  the  paddy  land  and  valley  fill  areas  are  used  by  this 
industry in the State. Clays available for the manufacture of tiles are mostly found in the districts 
of  Thrissur,  Kozhikode,  Ernakulam,  Kollam,  Thiruvananthapuram,  Kannur  and  Palakkad 
Districts. There are two main types of tile and brick clays in the State, lacustrine and floodplain. 
The  former  are  confined  to  Kannur  district.  Clays  are  generally  fine  plastic  to  dull  white  to 
variegated  colours  and  occur  in  the  depressions  in  the  laterite  near  Pattuvam,  Alakode, 
Thaliparamambu  etc.  The  flood  plain  deposits,  which  occur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers  are 
found  in  a  number  of districts. Tile  manufacturing  units  are concentrated  in  certain  areas  in  the 
State  mainly  Feroke  area  of  Kozhikode  district,  Amballur,  Ollur  of  Thrissur  district,  Aluva  of 
Ernakulam district, Chathannur of Kollam district and Amaravila of Thiruvananthapuram district.  
Graphite  
   Graphite  occurs  in  nature  in  the  form  of  vein,  dissemination  (flaky)  and  amorphous 
variety.  The  first  two  types  of  occurrences  are  found  in  Kerala.  The  vein  -  type  graphite  mined 
earlier  around  Veli,  Vellanad  and  Changa  is  confined  only  to  the  Thiruvananthapuram  district. 
The flake type of graphite is extensive in occurrence in Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Kottayam, 
Idukki  and  Ernakulam  districts  which  have  been  studied  by  Geological  Survey  of  India  and  are 
quite akin to the celebrated flaky graphite mined in the Malagasy Republic. The graphite occurs 
as thin flakes distributed more or less evenly  in the rock constitutin g on an average about 5%  -
10%  of  the  bulk  of  the  rock,  although  rich  pockets  are  not  uncommon.  The  studies  in  various 
laboratories  in  the  country  and  abroad  in  respect  of  the  bulk  samples  collected  from  the  flaky 
graphite  deposits  of  Vadakode,  Nagapuzha  (Muvattupuzha  taluk,  Ernakulam  district)  and 
Chirakkadavu (Kanjirappally  taluk, Kottayam district) point  to good beneficiation characteristics, 
a  high  recovery  of  fixed  carbon  (about  85%)  and  preservation  of  suitable  flake  size  facilitating

134
 
  their  use  in  key  value  added  industrial  application  like  crucible  manufacture  etc.  The  reserve 
position  in  respect of the flaky graphite deposits of Ernakulam and Kottayam districts are given 
below:
 
Table : 5.13  Graphite Deposits in Kerala 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Graphite   Nagapu zha   Vadakode   Chirakkadavu   Total  
1 .    Ore reserve (tonnes)   1059352   5050938   700000   6810920  
2 .    Grade (%c carbon)   7.3   5.0   3.0  
 
3 .    Recoverable graphite (tonnes)   43000   24000   16000   83800  
4 .    Concentrate grade (% carbon)   89   91   88   -  
5 .    Recovery   79   80   80   -  
 
Silica Sand 
The  coastal  tract  between  Alappuzha  and  Aroor  in  Alappuzha  District  contain  extensive 
deposits of silica sand. The best deposits are confined to the narrow strip of land sandwiched on 
either  side  by  Vembanad  lake  and  stretching  from  Cherthala  to  Arookutti  ove r  a  distance  of 
about  35  km.  Besides,  there  are  also  smaller  deposits  in  other  districts  of  Kerala.  The  sand 
deposit comprises of flat to gently dipping sandy stretches, generally about 5m above Mean Sea 
Level. 
  Vertical sequence  
0 - 0.75 m below ground lev el   White sand mixed with soil  
0.75 - 2.50 m below ground level   White sand  
2.50 - 10.00 m below ground level   Brown sand  
 
Reserves  of  Deposit  Based  on  the  recent  appraisal  carried  out  by  the  Department  of 
Mining and Geology over the open area likely to be available for mining, the inferred reserve of 
silica sand in the villages are estimated as below: 
  Village   Approximate area in hectares   Reserve in million tones  
Pallipuram   300   18.40  
Thycauttuserry   120   6.50  
Panavally   50   3.50  
Total   470   28.40

135
 
  Quality of Sand 
 
   Investigation  carried  out  at  Regional  Research  Laboratory  (RRL),  Thiruvananthapuram 
have  revealed  that  the  silica  sand  of  Pallippuram  is  superior  compared  to  the  sands  of  certain 
other countries (Mdina and Baraboo of USA and Germany) as raw material for silica refractory. 
Chemical  analysis  indicates  that  the sands  are  of  high  quality  suitable  for  glass  manufacturing. 
The  brown  sands  occurring  below  the  white  sand  in  Varanad  area  have  also  shown  that  they 
are  superior  in  quality  to  the  white  sand  in  the  same  area  and  are  suitable  for  manufacture  of 
glass.  Varanad  sand  could  be  used  for  making  high  grade  colourless  glass  such  as  crystal 
glass,  table  ware  etc.  The  scope  for  beneficiation  of  the  sand  established  its  usefulness  in 
optical and ophthalmic glass industry. The reserves estimated tentatively are of the order of 250 
million tonnes.  
 
Lignite
 
   Lignite,  the  only  fuel  mineral  discovered  recently 
in the State assumes special significance. Since no coal 
deposits have been identified and the landed cost of coal 
remains  high,  the  possibility  of  substitution  of  coal  and 
fire wood by lignite in the user industries would be worth 
pursuing.  As  per  the  recommendations  of  the  task  force 
on  lignite  constituted  for  Kerala,  the  erstwhile  Kerala 
Mineral  Exploration  &  Development  Project  had  carried 
out detailed investigation for lignite in Madai area, Kannur district. 
Limestone  
Crystalline Limestone 
   Kerala  State  is  deficient  in  crystalline  limestone  and  only  a  few  bands  of  crystalline 
limestone in Palakkad and Idukki districts have been located in addition to the limestone deposit 
proved at Pandarathu, Walayar, Palakkad district. The Pandarathu limestone deposit (24 million 
tonnes)  is  now  the  captive  mine  producing  limestone  for  M/s.  Malabar  Cements  Ltd.,  the 
Portland  cement  plant  in  Kerala.  A  number  of  small  bands  have  also  been  identified  in  other 
localities  in  Nattuvanki,  Athurasram,  Vannamadai,  Thavalam  in  Palakkad  district  and  in  a  few 
localities in Idukki district.

136
 
  Kankar Limestone 
   Limestone  of  Kankar  variety  has  been  reported  from  Chittoor-  Kozhinjampara  area  in 
Palakkad  district.  The  economic  significance  of  low-grade  limestone  has  not  been  indicated  by 
the  studies  conducted  so  far.  The  16  km2  area  between  Thavalam  and  near  Anaiketty  shows 
that kankar caps the amphibolite over 0.3 km2. 
 Fossiliferous Limestone 
Fossiliferous  Limestone  is  known  to  occur  in  various  parts  of  Kollam  district  such  as 
Kallurkadavu,  Mughathala,  Kannanallur,  Kottiyam,  Mayyanad,  Nedumgandam  and  Edava  in 
Thiruvananthapuram  district.  The  occurrence  of  shell  limestone  is  in  the  form  of  discontinuous 
lenses intercalated with black carbonaceous clay in the Tertiary formations. 
Lime Shell 
   The State is deficient  in high-grade limestone. Consequently the requirement of lime for 
chemical industry is depended on the limeshell resources occurring in the backwaters/estuaries, 
river  mouths  and  lagoons  along  the  coastal  tract.  By  far  the  largest  reserves  of  lime  shell  are 
known  to  occur  in  Vembanad  lake  and  adjoining  portions  comprising  parts  of  Alappuzha, 
Ernakulam  and  Kottayam  Districts.  The  Department  of  Mining  and  Geology  by  its  detailed 
investigation in certain parts of Vembanad lake and adjoining areas have established a reserve 
of 3.29 million tonnes as shown below: 
   Locality   Reserve in m illion tones  
Vembanad Lake   2.50  
Kualsekharamanagalam   0.18  
Pallipuram    0.10  
Vechoorpadam    0.26  
Thannirmukkom   0.25  
 
   The lime shell resources next in  importance to Vembanad lake are those in Kannur and 
Kasargod  districts  in  North  Kerala.  The  department  had  also  investigated  on  the  occurrence  of 
limeshell  in  Thrissur,  Malappuram  and  Kannur  districts  and  the  reserves  indicated  are  as 
follows:

137
 
  Sl. 
No.   District   Place   Reserve in 
million tones  
1 .     Thrissur   Naduvullikara,   
Vadanapalli, Chettuva, 
and Kappad   0.33  
2 .     Kannur   Payyannur, 
Cheruvathur, and 
Thrikkarippur   0.29  
3 .     Malappuram   Kanhiramukku   0.14  
 
 
Magnesite  
   A  total  possible  reserve  of  0.037  million  tonnes  has  been  estimated  in  Mulli-Salayur 
areas, Attappadi in Palakkad District by the Department of Mining and Geology. In Salayur area, 
magnesite  veins  varying  in  thickness  from  10  to  30  m  were  observed  in  pits.  The  average 
recovery  of  magnesite  was  assessed  as  100  kg/m3  of magnesite  -  bearing  rocks  and  samples 
on  analysis  were  found  to  contain  43.05  to  46.73%  MgO,  1.51  to  6.59%  of  Si02  and  0.29  to 
0.59% of CaO. 
Steatite / Talc 
   It  is  consumed  in  many manufacturing  industries  of  paper,  insecticide,  textile,  fertilizers, 
ceramics,  rubber  products,  cement,  asbestos  etc.  Several  steatite  occurences  have  been 
identified in Thalassery Taluk of Kannur district. The total reserves estimated are of the order of 
7.94 million tonnes. 
Granite (Dimension Stone)
 
   An important aspect of recent trend in architecture and construction is the increasing use 
of buildings and monuments. In this regard a number of rock types broadly grouped as"Granite" 
that exist in various parts of Kerala are utilised for this purpose. The major granite belt of Kerala 
can be classified by its geologic setting into three categories:    
Charnockite-Khondalite  belt  of  Thiruvananthapuram,  Kollam,  Pathanamthitta  and 
Kottayam  districts  (colour  ranges  from  pale  green  with  mottled  red,  bluish  green  with 
cordierite, deep dark green, greyish white). 
   True  intrusive  or  anatectic  granites  and  associated  migmatites  of  Proterozoic  age  from 
Idukki,  Palakkad, Kannur,  Kasargod  and Wayanad  districts  (colour:  Pink,  light  pink,  Gray, 
yellowish white and bluish pink with wavy .patterns).

138
 
  
  Dolerite-Gabbro  dykes,  Proterozoic  intrusive  hypabasal  dyke  swarms  from  Kottayam, 
Palakkad, Malappuram and Kozhikode districts (colour: dark greenish blue, black and dark 
gray with black spots).   
In  Kerala,  the  importance  of  exploration  of  granites  has 
been  recognised  rather  late  although  investigations  have 
been  initiated  right  from  1976.  There  has  been  a  spurt  in 
quarrying  leases  for  granite  dimension  stone  in  the  early 
nineties  that  resulted  in  creatiol"1  of  international  market 
for  green  and  white  coloured  granites  of  Kerala.  Though 
Kerala has large resources of dimension stone granite in most of the districts amenable for 
being  cut  and  polished,  there  are  only  19  quarries  producing  3589  cbm  annually  (2001 -
'02)  which  is  low  compared  to  the  production  of  other  southern  States  of  Tamilnadu, 
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. 
In  Kerala,  the  importance  of  exploration  of  granites  has  been  recognised  rather  late  although 
investigations  have  been  initiated  right  from  1976.  There  has  been  a  spurt  in  quarrying  leases 
for granite dimension stone in the early nineties that resulted in creatiol"1 of international market 
for  green  and  white  coloured  granites  of  Kerala.  Though  Kerala  has  large  resources  of 
dimension  stone  granite  in  most  of  the  districts  amenable  for  being  cut  and  polished,  there are 
only  19  quarries  producing  3589  cbm  annually  (2001-'02)  which  is  low  compared  to  the 
production  of  other  southern  States  of  Tamilnadu,  Karnataka  and  Andhra  Pradesh.There  are 
three different geological setting in which gemstones occurs in Kerala viz.  
- the pegmatites traversing the crystalline rocks 
- in association with gravels in the river channels of the present day 
- in the older gravels which are often consolidated and lateritised 
These  settings  have  fairly  extensive  geographical  distribution  in 
Thiruvananthapuram  district,  the  localities  of  importance  ar e 
Andoorkonam,  Aruvikkara,  Balaramapuram,  Bonaccord  Estate, 
Braemore  Estate,  Changa,  Chullimanur,  Madathara,   Manickkal, 
Pirappancode,  Venjaramoodu,  Venganoor,  Vembayam,  Thonnakkal, 
Uzhamalakkal,  Manvila,  Mudakkal,  Nedumangad,  Vellanad,  Nettani,  Ooroottamb alam, 
Pothencode  and  in  Kollam,  the  main  gem  bearing  localities  are  Adukkalamula,  Podiattuvila, 
Kulathupuzha,  and  Talachira.  Besides  these  localities  several  stretches  of  rivers  like  Kallar - 
Vamanapuram  Ar,  Karamana  Ar,  Neyyar  in  Thiruvanathapuram  District  and  Kulathupuzha,

139
 
  Kallada  rivers  in  Kollam  district  are  also subjected  to sporadic mining  activities,  though  there  is 
no legalized gem mining in the State.
 
Land Degradation 
   Land is degraded when it suffers a loss of  intrinsic qualities, decline in  its c apabilities or 
loss  in  its  productive  capacity.  Land  degradation  may  be  due  to  natural  or  human  causes  or  it 
may be due to combination of both. The State wise information of wetland and degraded land of 
the Districts is in table 5.3.1. and 5.3.2. 
Land  degradation  is  a  global  problem,  largely  related  to  agricultural  use.  The  major  causes 
include: 
  Land clearance, such as deforestation .  
   Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices .  
   Livestock including overgrazing .  
   Inappropriate Irrigation .  
   Urban sprawl and commercial development .  
   Land pollution including industrial waste  
    Vehicle off-roading .  
   Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals 
     Alkali  or  alkaline,  soils  are  clay  soils  with  high  pH  (>  9),  a  poor  soil  structure  an d  a  low 
infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 meter depth. Alkali soils 
owe  their  unfavourable  physico-chemical  properties  mainly  to  the  dominating  presence  of 
sodium  carbonate  which  causes  the  soil  to  swell.  Alkaline  soils  are  difficult  to  take  into 
agricultural production. Alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production.   
   Soil  is  the  non-renewable  natural  resource  which  supports  life  on  earth.  It  is  estimated 
that one-sixth of the world's soils have already been degraded by water and wind  erosion. This 
has two important consequences: the reduced ability of society to produce sufficient food due to 
loss  of  quality  and  depth  of  soils;  and  resulted  in  off-site  pollution  associated  with  erosion. 
These  include  siltation  of  dams,  pollution  of  water-courses  by  agricultural  chemicals  and 
damage  to  property  by  soil-laden  runoff.  On-site  issues  of  declining  soil  quality  tend  to  be 
spatially  dispersed  occurring  on many  different  soil  types  whereas  off-site  pollution  issues  tend 
to be locally concentrated.

140
 
     Soil erosion by rain and river that takes place in hilly areas causes landslides and floods, 
while  cutting  trees  for  firewood,  agricultural  implements  and  timber,  grazing  by  a  large  number 
of  livestock,  over  and  above,  the  carrying  capacity  of  grass  lands,  traditional  agricultural 
practices,  construction  of  roads,  indiscriminate  (limestone)  quarrying  and  other  activities,  have 
all  led  to  the  opening  of  hill-faces  to  heavy  soil  erosion.  Wind  erosion  causes  expansion  of 
deserts,  dust,  storms,  whirlwinds  and  destruction  of  crops,  while  moving  sand  covers  the  land 
and  makes  it  sterile.  Excessive  soil  erosion  with  consequent  high  rate  of  sedimentation  in  the 
reservoirs  and  decreased  fertility  has  become  serious  environmental  problems  with  disastrous 
economic consequences. 
   Soil  erosion  results  in  huge  loss  of  nutrients  in  suspension  or  solution,  which  are 
removed  away  from  one  place  to  another,  thus  causing  depletion  or  enrichment  of  nutrients. 
Besides  the  loss  of  nutrients  from  the  topsoil,  there  is  also  degradation  through  the  creation  of 
gullies  and  ravines,  which makes  the  land  unsuitable  for  agricultural  production.  Subsidence of 
the  land  in  some  areas  and  landslides  in  the  hilly  tracts  are  problems  affecting  hig hways, 
habitations and irrigation dams.  
Land  degradation  implies  "temporary  or  permanent  recession  from  a  higher  to  a  lower 
status  of  productivity  through  deterioration  of  physical,  chemical  and  biological  aspects".  Land 
degradation  has  numerous  environmental,  economic,  social  and  ecological  consequences. 
Every  ecosystem  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  affected  by  some  or  other  form  of  land 
degradation.  The  past  five  decades  have  witnessed  a  significant  rise  in  food  production,  but  in 
many  places  the  better  yields  have  been  associated  with  agricultural  practices  that  have 
degraded  the  land  and  water  systems.  Farming  systems  “face  the  risk  of  progressive 
breakdown of their productive capacity under a combination of excessive demographic pressure 
and unsustainable agriculture use and practices. 
The  total  spatial  extent  of  land  degradation  in  Kerala  is  5.2  lakh  hectares  constituting 
13.4  percent  of  geographical  area.  A  major  consideration  in  present  estimate  is  with  respect 
seasonal  water  logging.  In  valley  fills,  under  high  rainfall  conditions,  the  choice  of  cropping  is 
restricted  to  paddy  and  other  economically  beneficial  crop  cannot  be  cultivated.  Hence  it  was 
considered as a land degradation problem.

141
 
  Table : 5.14
  Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers in Kerala (in Kg)  Sl. 
No.   Year   Nitrogen   Phosphorous   Pottash   Total   N:(PK)%  
1   1997 - 98   29.29   15.23   29.4   73.92   66  
2   1998 - 99   29.5   14.58   18.14   62.22   90  
3   1999 - 00   29.85   15.08   27.54   72.47   70  
4   2000 - 01   28.43   12.66   20.82   58.32   85  
5   2001 - 02   25.54   12.44   21.21   59.19   76  
6   2002 - 03   29.18   13.53   26.19   68.9   73  
7   2003 - 04   28.92   13.2   22.93   65.05   80  
8   2004 - 05   29.87   14.14   24.2   68.21   78  
9   2005 - 06   28   15   25   68   70  
10   2006 - 07   31   16   43   89   53  
11   2007 - 08   32   15   25   72   80  
12   2008 - 09   38   19   32   89   74  
13   2009 - 10   39   20   32   91   75  
14   2010 - 11   4 0   24   33   97   70  
15   2011 - 12   44   22   32   98   81  
16   2012 - 13   52   16   26   94   124  
17   2013 - 14   53   27.00   45.00   125   73  
 
Source : Economic Revirew

142
 
  Consumption of Chemical Fertilizers in Kerala (in Kg)
  
Source : Economic Revirew

143
 
   
 
Table : 5.15  Out turn of Major Forest Produce 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Item   Unit   Quantity  
1   Sawn and squared Timber   M 3
  6.893  
2   Teak Poles   Nos   117222  
3   Firewood   MT   22066.016  
4   Sandal Wood   Kg   62587.640  
5   Bamboo   MT   5938.996  
6   Reeds   MT   9917.023  
7   Jungle Wood Poles   Nos   5545  
 
Source : 
Forest Statistics,  Kerala Forest Department

144
 
  Table : 
5.16  Total consumtion of all kinds of wood during 2013 -14 (in m3)    
Sl.  
No.   District   Hardwood   Softwood  
Forest   Local   Import   Total   Forest   Local   Import   Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   6526   147919   16405   170850   1016   26919   107   28042  
2   Kollam   12682   126997   4195   143874   1247   38359   -   39606  
3   Pathanamthitta   1867   57246   15490   74603   140   17716   5   17861  
4   Alappuzha   8090   247244   7531   262865   251   107062   25   107338  
5   Kottayam   728   113642   3534   117904   815   43466   169   44450  
6   Idukki   1909   26766   201   28876   461   9499   10   9970  
7   Eranakulam   18041   138564   33724   190329   4424   66385   1   70810  
8   Thrissur   12120   160981   28087   201188   359   106535   165   107059  
9   Palakkad   3407   104603   6325   114335   463   56892   366   57721  
10   Malappuram    8155   1 565521   14504   188180   260   83677   13   83950  
11   Kozhikode   17506   104983   17650   140139   3183   74914   158   78255  
12   Wayanad    271   27134   480   27885   -   22935   -   22935  
13   Kannur   2576   70538   14166   87280   271   54190   130   54591  
14   Kasaragode   1156   28295   10254   39705   2082   27237   386   29705  
  Total   95034   1520433   172546   1788013   14972   735786   1535   752293  
 
Source : 
Report on saw mills in Kerala

145
 
   
Out turn of Major Forest Produce 2013
-14    
              
  Source : Forest Statistics, Kerala Forest Department

146
 
   
Outturn of Timber
  Category wise outturn of Timber classified according to utility is given below:
-   
Table : 5.1
7  Outturn  of Timber based on utility 2013 -14   Sl. No.   Category   Unit   Quantity  
1 .     Industial wood
  M 3
  29135.433  
2 .     Plywood   “   471.311  
3 .     Matchwood   “   36 1.466  
4 .     Bobbin wood   “   424.85  
5 .     Pencil wood   “   10.517  
6 .     Packing case wood   “   198.29  
7 .     Pulpwood  
a )     Eucalyptus   MT   16560.728  
b )     Accasia   “   114362.201  
c )     Bamboo   “   5938.996  
d )     Reeds   “   9917.023  
8 .     Miscellaneous  
a )     Timber   M 3
  1453.05  
b )     Firewood   MT   22.66.016  
c )     Teak poles   Nos   117222  
d )     Jungle wood poles   Nos   5545  
e )     Teak Billets   MT   1832.756  
 
Source : 
Forest Statistics,  Kerala Forest Department

147
 
  Natural Disaster
  A natural disaster is the consequence of the combination of a natural hazard (a physical 
event  e.g.  volcanic  eruption,
  earthquake,  landslide)  and  human  activities.  Human  vulnerability, 
caused  by  the  lack  of  appropriate  emergency  management,  leads  to  financial,  structural,  and 
human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist 
t he  disaster,  their  resilience.  This  understanding  is  concentrated  in  the  formulation:  "disasters 
occur  when  hazards  meet  vulnerability".  A  natural  hazard  will  hence  never  result  in  a  natural 
disaster  in  areas  without  vulnerability,  e.g.  strong  earthquakes  in  uninhabited  areas.  The  term 
natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters 
without  human  involvement.  The  degree of  potential  loss  can also  depend on  the nature of  the 
hazard itself, ranging from wildfires,
  which threaten individual buildings, to impact events, which 
have the potential to end civilization.
 
Specific vulnerabilities of the State 
History of vulnerability of the state to the disasters of different types . The state of Kerala 
is vulnerable to a multitude of hazards and is categorized as a multiple-hazard prone state. The 
state  experiences  various  kinds  of  disasters  of  recurrent  nature  that  results  in  loss  of  life, 
livelihood and property, and disruption of economic activity, besides causing immens e hardship 
to the affected population. Kerala has a long coast line of 590kms out of which, 322 Km is prone 
to severe sea erosion . The density of population  is 819 persons per sq.km which is the second 
highest  density  in  the  country.    About  96.9%  of  the  total  area  in  the  state  lies  in  the  140.4km/h 
wind  zone  which  is  classified  as  Moderate  Damage  Risk  Zone  by  the  BMPTC  Atlas  while  the 
remaining area lies in 118.8km/h wind zone 
The mean maximum storm surge height in the state is 3.5m and minimum is 2.3m. If  the 
storm  surge  is  during  high  tide,  the  maximum  surge  height  in  the  state  will  be  4.2m  and 
minimum  storm  height  will  reach  up  to  3m,  as  observed  by  the  Meteorological  Department, 
Thiruvanthapuram.  The  coastal  belt  of  Kerala  is  one  of  the  most  densely  popu lated  regions  in 
the  country,  which  adds  to  its  vulnerability.  The  Western  flank  of  the  Western  Ghats  covering 
the eastern part of Kerala is identified as one of the major landslide prone areas of the country.

148
 
   
Floods:  In  Kerala,  riverine  flooding  is  a  recurring  event  consequent  to  heavy  or  continuous 
rainfall  exceeding  the  absorptive  capacity  of  soil  and  flow  capacity  of  streams  and  rivers.  This 
causes a water course to overflow  its banks onto flood plains;  which by definition is a relatively 
flat  land  adjacent  to  a  natural  water  course,  composed  primarily  of  unconsolidated  depositional 
material  derived  from  sediments  transported  by  the  related  stream  and  subjected  to  periodic 
flooding.  Reclamation  and  settlement  in  floodplain  areas  is  a  major  cause  of  flood  damage  in 
Kerala. Defining the entire flood potential in a given area is a delicate task.  
  Landslides:  In  Kerala,  landslides  commonly  occur  in  localised  areas  of  the  Western  Ghats 
region  where  the  slope  is  steep  and  the  soil  is  over  saturated  as  a  re sult  of  prolonged  rainfall. 
These  events  vary  from  events  affecting  a  parcel  of  land  to  those  larger  ones  with  much 
causality.  Only  the  larger  ones  with  losses  of  lives  have been  highlighted  and studied  in  detail. 
The  smaller  events  also  indicate  landslide  potential  of  an  area.  Case  studies  by  CESS  show 
that most of the events are of debris flow type triggered by excess rainfall and are influenced by 
terrain  factors  like  slope,  overburden  thickness,  landuse,  relative  relief,  disposition  of  streams, 
landform at micro level etc. The area of the state is about 38863 sq.km of which 40% lies in the 
highland region forming the western slopes of Western Ghats. A considerable part of all districts 
of  Kerala  except  the  coastal  district  of  Alleppey  falls  within  this  region.  The  western  declivity  of 
the Western Ghats is steep and usually terraced resembling ghat or landing stairs from which it 
derives the name. This region  is characterized by rugged hills with steep slopes on which rests 
the  soil  and  earth  materials.  The  slope  in  the  Western  Ghats  region  is  generally  steep  to  very 
steep  with  plateau  edges  highly  indented  having  >  25  slope.  The  term  landslide  includes  a 
broad  range  of  different  types  of  motion  whereby  earth  material  is  dislodged  by  falling,  sliding 
and  flowing  under  the  influence  of  gravity.  In  fact  mass  movements  such  as  landslides  are 
natural  phenomenon  that  causes  landscape  changes,  threat  to  life  and  destruction  of  property. 
The most common type of landslides in Kerala is debris flows.  
Earthquakes:    Kerala  has  experienced occasional  mild  tremors  since historical  times.  None of 
them  are  reported  to  have caused  casualties  or  major  damages  to  built -up  structures  as  in  the 
case  of  Lathur  earthquake.  A  seismic  hazard  map  with  10%  probability  of  exceedance  in  50 
years  assigns  low-level  hazard  to  regions  falling  in  Kerala.    However  pockets  of  higher  ground 
acceleration  have  been  identified  in  central  Kerala.  In  this  region  higher  levels  of  earthquake 
hazard are expected calling for the introduction of better building practices.

149
 
  Tsunami:  
 The superimposition of tsunami waves with high tide was a factor that compounded 
the  inundation  resulted  in  higher  intensity  of  damage.  The  worst  affected  part  of  the  coast  in 
terms  of  inundation,  run-up  and  erosion  was  the  10  km  segment  of  Azhikkal  coast.    Satellite 
imagery  of  this  tract  a  day  after  the  tsunami  clearly  shows  highly  turbid  sediment-laden  water. 
Many  concrete  houses,  fishing  boats  canoes  and  automobiles  of  this  area  were  uprooted  and 
thrown to distances of 100 to 200 m. Even blocks of rocks (1m size) of the seawall were thrown 
ashore to 150m by the rushing tsunami waves. 
 
Coastal  hazards:   In  Kerala,  out  of  14  districts,  9  districts  are  bordering  the  sea  coast 
vulnerable to various disasters such as floods, cyclones, coastal erosion,  landslides etc. These 
nine  districts  are  namely,  Kasargode,  Kannur,  Kozhikode,  Malappuram,  Thrissur,  Ernakulam, 
Alappuzha,  Kollam and  Thiruvananthapuram.  The state has  223 coastal villages  which  has  the 
probability of being affected by cyclone. Natural causes of coastal erosion are due to the action 
of  waves,  winds,  tides,  near  shore  currents,  storm  surges  and  sealevel  rise.  Human  activities 
such  as  the  construction  of  harbours,  jetties  and  groynes,  river  training  works,  mining  and 
dr edging  can  also  lead  to  erosion  of  certain  regions.  Some  of  the  coastal  stretches  in  Kerala 
have  shown  long-term  erosion  with  net  loss  of  land.  It  is  reported  that  about  480  km  length  of 
the  coast  is  under  the  threat  of  erosion.  The  rocky  coasts  with  pocket  beaches  have  minimum 
level  of  erosion.  In  areas  with  laterite  cliffs,  under  cutting  of  the  softer  clay  layers  lead  to 
slumping  with  a  net  landward  migration  of  the  shoreline.  In  the  sandy  areas  some  of  the 
segments show long term erosion while others with either accretion or stable condition. 
Lightning:      Lightning is a weather phenomenon. It is essentially an electrical discharge.  This 
is  not  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to  Kerala.  It  is  part  of  a  global  electrical  system  known  as  the 
Global  Electric  Circuit‘  involving  the  earth,  ionosphere,  and  the  atmosphere  in  between.  On  an 
average about 70 people in the state die due to lightning. There are numerous overlaps of dots 
in  the  plot.  It  can  be  seen  that  there  is  a  relative  void  in  incidents  in  an  area  west  of  the 
Palakkad. More specifically the region west of Palakkad namely the region near Thrisur has less 
incidence.  This  is  because  the  mountain  range  has  a  gap  in  Palakkad  and  so  the  absence  of 
mountain  results  in  less  Cb  formation  and  lightning  incidence.  The   two  figures  indicate  that  the 
mid land of Kerala has more lightning.

150 
  Table : 5.18
  Kerala’s Major Natural Disasters 2013- 14 Sl. 
No.   Item   Flood   Drought   Fire  
1   Period of occurrence   2013 - 14   2013 - 14   2013 - 14  
2   Total number of districts in the State   14   14   1 4  
3   Number and names of districts affected   14,Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, 
Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha,      Idukki, 
Ernakulam, Kottayam, Ernakulam, 
Thrissur, Palakkad, Kannur,Malappuram,      
Kozhikkode, Wayanad, Kasaragod   14 Districts viz., Thiruvananthapu ram, 
Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha, 
Kottayam, Idukki, Thrissur, Palakkad, 
Malappuram, Kozhikode,                    
Kannur, Wayanad.   3, Palakkad, 
Pathanamthitta, 
Alapuzha  
4   Number of villages affected   1399   617   3  
5   Population affected   (in lakh)   70.2 0   25   0  
6   Total land area affected (in lakh ha)   18.31   6.39   0.24  
7.1   Cropped area affected  
     
7.1.1   Total cropped area affected (in lakh ha.)   13.76   3.32   0.24  
7.1.2   Estimated loss to crops      (Rs.in lakh)   8601.74   6936.58   56.86  
7.1.3   Area where crop dam age was  more than 
50%   12.19   3.24   100%  
7.2   Percentage  of  cropped    area  held  by 
SMF   92%   96%   88%  
7.2.1   In State, as a whole   55.04%   13.28%   0.01%  
7.2.2   In the affected districts   Thiruvananthapuram  - 100,            
Kollam - 75, Pathanamthitta - 100, 
Alappuzha - 95,   Kottayam, Idukki - 89, 
Ernakulam - 60, Thrissur, Palakkad - 100, 
Malappuram - 100,  Kozhikode - 98, 
Kannur - 96, Wayanad - 80, Kasaragod 99.   Thiruvananthapuram  - 100, Kollam - 85, 
Pathanamthitta - 100, Alappuzha - 95, 
Kottayam, Idukki,Thrissur,            
Palakkad - 19.82, Mala ppuram,    
Kozhikode - 98, Kannur - 96, Wayanad.   Palakkad - 70, 
Pathanamthitta - 100, 
Alapuzha - 95  
8   Houses damaged   36046   0   0  
 
Kerala’s Major Natural Disasters 2013-14

151 
  Table : 5.19 Frequently Occuring Natural Disasters in Kerala 2013-
14  Sl.
No   Type   Affected Distr icts   Affected 
Population in 
Lakhs  
1 .    Floods   Thiruvananthapuram,  Kollam,  Pathanamthitta,  
Alappuzha,  Kottayam,  Idukki,  Ernakulam, 
Thrissur,  Palakkad,  Malappuram,  Kozhikode, 
Kannur, Wayanad, Kasaragod.   70.20  
2 .    Drought   Thiruvananthapuram,  Kollam,  Pathanamthitt a, 
Alappuzha,Kottayam,  Idukki,  Thrissur, 
Palakkad,  Kannur,    Malappuram,  Kozhikode, 
Wayanad   25  
3 .    Landslide   Palakkad   0.00  
4 .    Fire   Palakkad, Idukki, Kannur   0.00  
 
Source: Kerala State Disaster Management Authority 
 
……

152

153 
  CHAPTER  - 
VI 
Water    ater  quality  management  in  India  is  accomplished  under  the  provision  of  water 
(Prevention to control of pollution) Act1974.  Main objective of the act is to prevent the pollution 
of  water  by  Industrial,  agricultural  and  household  waste  water  that  can  contaminate   our  water 
source. 
Water is used for drinking & other domestic purposes in most communities are obtained 
from  Natural  Sources  such as  rivers,  streams,  lakes,  ponds  & springs  of  artificial  sources  such 
as  wells  and  bore  wells.    Most  times  these  water  supplies  are  likely  to  be  polluted  with  waste.  
Micro  organisms  in  these  natural  sources  are  numerous  in  both  number  and  diversity.  Water 
plays  a  very  important  role  in  human  health.    To  determining  the  health  of  individuals  and  the 
whole  communities , the quality of water supplied is more important. 
  Bacteriological  monitoring  is  based  on  knowledge  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  water 
supply  which  is  based  on  the  detection  of  Colifom  bacteria  in  the  specific  indicator  of  human 
faecal condamination, Escherichacol(E.coli)  The term indicator organisms refers to micro organ 
isms whose presence in water shows that the water is polluted with  faecal method   from human 
or other warm blooded animals.  Coliform bacteria are a group of becteria found in the intestinal 
trait of human and other animals.  There are rod-shaped micro organism.   
Coliform will not likely cause illness.  However the presence of coliform in drinking indicates the 
presence of disease-cause of organisms Eschericha-coli,  Enterobacteria,, aeigens, Salmonell a 
and  Klebasialla  re  some  examples  of  this  group.  Coliform  bacteria  do  not  occur  naturally  in 
ground  water.    However  it  can  live  within  biofilm  formed  by  naturally  occurring  ground  water 
micro organisms. The main cause of contamination are :  
1)  Missing/defective well cap seals around wires/pipes 
2)  Coracles of holes in the well casing 
3)  Many older wells were not sealed with grout when constructed. 
4)  Well flooding 
5)  Close proximity of a well to septic tanks, drain fields sewers, drains and surface water 
6)  Cross connection with waste water plumping.

154 
   
Total  Coliform,  faecal  coliform,  and  EColi  are  the  indicators  of  drinking  water  quality.    Total 
Colifrm  bacteria  are  found  in  the  environment  (Soil  or  vegetables)  are  usually  harmless.   Fecal 
Coliform  bacteria  are  subgroup  of  the  Total  Coli  form  group.    They  are  found  in  intestine  and 
faces of warm-blooded animal. E-Coli  is sub group of the faecal coli form group.  They are also 
found  in  the  intestines  of  people  and  warm  blooded  animals.    Most  E-coli  are  harmless  but 
some strains may cause serious illness. 
 
Table : 6.1  Primary water quality criteria for bathing water    Cubic meter  criteria   Rationale  
Faecal Coliform : 500 (desirable)  
MPN /100ml: 2500 (maximum permissible)  
 
 
 
Faecal Streptococci: 100 (desirable)  
MPN/100ml : 500 (m aximum permissible)   To  ensure  low  sewage  contamination,  faecal 
coliform  and  faecal  streptococci  are  considered 
as they reflect the bacterial pathogenicity.  
 
The desirable and permissible limits are  
Suggested  to  allow  for  fluctuation  in 
environment  conditio ns  such  as  seasonal 
Changes,  changes  in  flow  conditions,  and  so 
on.  
 
pH: between 6.5 and 8.5   The  range  provides  protection  of  the  skin  and 
delicate organs like eyes, nose, ears, and so on, 
which are directly exposed outdoor bathing.  
 
Dissolved oxygen : 5   mg/l or more   The minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 
5  mg/l  ensures  reasonable  freedom  from 
oxygen  consuming  organic  pollution 
immediately  U/s  which  is  necessary  for 
preventing  production  of  anaerobic  gases 
(obnoxious gases) from sediments.  
 
Bioche mical oxygen Demand : 3 mg/l or  
less 3 days at 27  
  C  
  The  biochemical  oxygen  demand  of  3  mg/l  or 
less  of  the  waiter  ensures  reasonable  freedom 
from  oxygen  demanding  pollutants  and  prevent 
production of obnoxious gases.  
 
Source: Kerala State Pollution Control Board

155 
   
Table : 6.2  Water Quality  Criteria (CPCB) 2013- 14 
  Designated - Best - Use   Use 
Class   Criteria  
Drinking water source without  
conventional treatment but after  
disinfection   A   Total Coliforms MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less.  
pH : 6.5. and 8.5  
DO : 6mg /l or more  
BOD : 2 mg/l or less.  
Outdoor bathing (Organised)   B   Total Coliforms MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less  
pH : 6.5 and 8.5  
DO : 5 mg/l or more  
BOD : 3mg/l or less.  
Drinking  water  source  after 
conventional  
treatment and disinfection.   C   Total  Coliforms   MPN/100  ml  shall  be  5000  or 
less  
pH : 6.5 to 8.5  
DO : 4mg/l or more  
BOD : 3mg/l or less.  
Propagation or Wild Life and  
Fisheries   D   pH: 6.5 to 8.5  
DO  :  4mg/l  or  more,  Free  Ammonia  (as  N)  1.2 
mg/l or less.  
Irrigation,  Industrial  Cooling, 
Controlled  
Waste d isposal   E   pH: 6.0 to 8.5  
Electrical conductivity at 250C micro mhos/cm  
Max 2250  
Sodium Absorption Ratio Max: 26  
Boron Max 2mg/l  
  Below E   Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria  
 
Source: Kerala State Pollution Control Board

156 
   
Table : 6.3  Storage levels in Reservoirs  Cubic Meter Sl. 
No.   Item   2012   2013   2014  
1   Storage  of  water  on  the 
beginning of the monsoon year   403.69   280.59   415.16  
2   Storage  of  water  at  the  end  of 
the monsoon year   744   1290.25   1316.46  
3   Increase in storage   340.31   1009.66   901.3  
Average for 1 0 Years  
4   Storage  of  water  on  the 
beginning of the monsoon year   430.8   395.63   360.5  
5   Storage  of  water  at  the  end  of 
the monsoon year   1116.76   1186.48   1087.27  
6   Increase in storage   686.56   790.85   726.77  
 
Source: Economic Review, DES

157 
   
Table : 6.4  Name of Reservoirs        
Sl. 
No.   Name of Reservoir   District   Area(Ha)  
1   Neyyar   Thiruvananthapuam   1500  
2   Peppara   Thiruvananthapuam   582  
3   Aruvikkara   Thiruvananthapuam   258  
4   Thenmala Dam (Kallada)   Kollam   2590  
5   Pamba   Pathanamthitta   570  
6   Kakki   Pathanamthitta   180 0  
7   Maniyar   Pathanamthitta   110  
8   Gani & Kallar Dam   Pathanamthitta   25  
9   Ponmudi   Idukki   260  
10   Idukki Arch Dam   Idukki   6160  
11   Anayirankal Dam   Idukki   433  
12   Gundala   Idukki   230  
13   Mattupetty Dam   Idukki   324  
14   Sengulam Dam   Idukki   33  
15   Neriyamangalam   I dukki   413  
16   Periyar Lake   Idukki   2890  
17   Edamalayar Dam   Idukki   350  
18   Kallarkutty Dam   Idukki   58  
19   Munnar Headworkers Dam   Idukki   250  
20   Kallar Division Dam   Idukki   220  
21   Lower Periyar Dam   Idukki   150  
22   Erattayar Dam   Idukki   200  
23   Malankara Dam   Iduk ki   120  
24   Mullaperiyar Dam   Idukki   400  
25   Kulamavu Dam   Idukki   6160

158 
  26   Cheruthoni Dam   Idukki  
 
27   Bhoothathankettu   Ernakulam   608  
28   Peechi   Thrissur   1200  
29   Vazhani   Thrissur   255  
30   Sholayar   Thrissur   870  
31   Peringalkuthu   Thrissur   280  
32   Chimmini -   Dam   T hrissur   1000  
33   Poomala   Thrissur   75  
34   Pathazhakunnu Dam   Thrissur   14  
35   Asuram Kundu Dam   Thrissur   12  
36   Malampuzha   Palakkad   2313  
37   Mangalam   Palakkad   393  
38   Meenkara   Palakkad   259  
39   Chulliyar   Palakkad   159  
40   Pothundi   Palakkad   363  
41   Walayar   Palakk ad   289  
42   Parambikulam   Palakkad   2092  
43   Thunakkadavu   Palakkad   283  
44   Lakkidi   Palakkad   25  
45   Kanjirappuzha   Palakkad   512  
46   Cheramangalam   Palakkad   200  
47   Tharampilli   Palakkad   244  
48   Kuttiyadi   Kozhikkode   1052  
49   Kakkayam   Kozhikkode   1070  
50   Peruvannam uzhi   Kozhikkode   1050  
51   Banasurasagar   Wayanad   1277  
52   Korapuzha   Wayanad   1660  
53   Pazhassi   Kannur   648  
  Total  
  44289  
 
Source : Fisheries Department

159 
  Table : 6.5  Biological Water Quality Criteria (Bwqc) 2013-
14 Sl.  
No.   Taxonomic groups   Range of 
Saprobic  
Score 
(BMWP)   Range of 
Diversity 
Score   Water quality 
charecteristics   Water 
quality 
class   Indicator 
colour  
1   Ephemeroptera, 
Plecoptera, 
Trichoptera, 
Hemiptera, Diptera   7 and 
more   0.2 - 1   Clean   A   Blue  
2   Ephemeroptera, 
Plecoptera, 
Trichoptera, 
Hemiptera,  Plan aria, 
Odonata, Diptera   6 - 7   0.5 - 1   Slight pollution   B   Light Blue  
3   Ephemeroptera, 
Plecoptera, 
Trichoptera, 
Hemiptera,  Odonata, 
Crustacea,  Mollusca, 
Polychaeta, 
Coleoptera,  Diptera, 
Hirundinea, 
Oligochaeta   3 - 6   0.3 - 0.9   Moderate 
Pollution   C   Green  
4   Hemiptera,   Mollusca, 
Coleoptera,  Diptera, 
Oligochaeta   2 - 5   0.4 &less   Heavy Pollution   D   Orange  
5   Diptera, Oligochaeta, 
No Animal   0 - 2   0 - 0.2   Severe 
Pollution   E   Red  
 
Source: Kerala Pollution Control Board

160 
   
Table : 6.6  Navigable Waterways  in Kerala 2013- 14  Sl.No.   Na me of the River   Length  of 
the River   Navigable 
Length  
1   Achenkoil   128   32  
2   Anjarakandy   40   27.2  
3   Ayroor   17   1  
4   Bharatha Puzha   209   40  
5   Chalakudy   130   16  
6   Chaliyar   169   68.4  
7   Chandragiri   105   12.8  
8   Chittari   25   NA  
9   Ithikkara   56   16  
10   Kadalundi   130   43.2  
11   Kallada   121   40  
12   Kallayi   40   9.6  
13   Kamom   27   1  
14   Karamana   68   NA  
15   Kariangode   64   24  
16   Karuvannur   40   24  
17   Kavvayi   31   9.6  
18   Keecheri   51   NA  
19   Korapuzha   40   24.8  
20   Kuppam   82   24  
21   Kuttiyadi   74   9.6  
22   Mahe   54   24  
23   Manimala   90   54.4  
24   Manjeswar   15   3.2

161 
  25   Meenachil   78   41.6  
26   Mogral   34   NA  
27   Muvattupuzha   121   25.6  
28   Neyyar   56   NA  
29   Nileswar   46   NA  
30   Pallikal   42   3  
31   Pamba   176   73.6  
32   Periyar   244   72  
33   Peruvamba   51   16  
34   Puzhakkal   29   NA  
35   Ramapuram   19   5.4  
36   Shiriya   67   4.8  
37   Thalasseri   28   21.6  
38   Tirur   48   9.6  
39   Uppala   50   3.2  
40   Valapattanam   110   44.8  
41   Vamanapuram   88   11.2  
TOTAL   3093   837.2  
 
           Source: Fisheries Department

162 
   
 
Table : 6.7  District Wise Brackish Water Area in Kerala 2013- 14 Sl. No   Name of Distr ict   Area in (Ha)  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   1424  
2   Kollam   8604  
3   Pathanamthitta   Nil  
4   Alappuzha   15223  
5   Kottayam   4327  
6   Idukki   Nil  
7   Ernakulam   16213  
8   Thrissur   4272  
9   Palakkadu   Nil  
10   Malappuram   1796  
11   Kozhikode   4162  
12   Wayanadu   Nil  
13   Kannur   5944  
14   Kasaragod   3248  
TOTAL   65213  
 
Source: Fisheries Department

163 
   
Table : 6.8  Fresh  Water Lakes  in Kerala 2013- 14  Sl.No   Name of Lake   District   Area in (Ha)  
1   Vallayani Lake   Thiruvananthapuram   250  
2   Sasthamkotta Lake   Kollam   440  
3   Eravikulam Lake   Idukki   3  
4   Devikulam Lake   Idukki   10  
5   Elephant pond   Idukki   6  
6   Periyar Lake   Idukki   605  
7   Mankodi Lake   Thrissur   205  
8   Muriyadu Lake   Thrissur   94  
9   Pookote Lake   Wayanadu   7  
  TOTAL   1620  
 
Source: Fisheries Department

164 
   
Table : 6.9  Backwaters in Kerala 2013- 14   Sl.No.   Name of District   Sl. No.   Name of Backwaters   Area in (Ha)  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   1   Poovar  Kayal   30.93  
2   Poonthura Kayal   97.59  
3   Veli Kayal   22.48  
4   Kadinamkulam Kayal   346.88  
5   Anchuthengu Kayal   521.75  
6   Edava - Nadayara Kay al   157.65  
TOTAL   1177.28  
2   Kollam   1   Paravoor Kayal   662.46  
2   Ashtamudi Kayal   6424.15  
3   Kayamkulam Kayal   140.58  
TOTAL   7227.19  
3   Pathanamthitta   Nil  
4   Alappuzha   1   Kayamkulam   1511.75  
2   Poomeen Kayal   3.37  
3   Vadakkal Kayal   1.46  
4   Chethi Kay al   4.11  
5   Arthungal Kayal   5.96  
6   Pozhichal Kayal   20.41  
7   Vettakkalchal Kayal   27.1  
8   Vembanattu Kayal   10661.23  
TOTAL  
12235.39  
5   Kottayam   1   Vembanattu Kayal   2926.77  
TOTAL   2926.77  
6   Idukki   Nil  
7   Ernakulam   1   Vembanattu Kayal   2257.59  
2   K ochi Kayal   7503.80  
TOTAL  
9761.69  
8   Thrissur   1   Azhikode Kayal   82.02  
2   Kodungalloor Kayal   613.81  
3   Chettuva Kayal   713.87  
4   Pattikkara Kayal   -  
5   Manakkady Kayal   -

165 
  9   Palakkad   NIL  
10   Malappuram   1   Puthupponnani   150.83  
2   Ponnani Kayal   757.19  
3   Poorapuzha   62.98  
4   Kadalundi Kayal   323.56  
TOTAL  
1294.56  
11   Kozhikode   1   Kadalundi Kayal   83.85  
2   Beypore Kayal   783.74  
3   Kallai Kayal   160.13  
4   Korapuzha   1038.08  
5   Payyolipuzha   26.70  
6   Kottapuzha   584.12  
7   Newmahepuzha   88.28  
TOT AL   2764.90  
12   Wayanad   NIL  
13    
Kannur  
  1   Mahe   91.89  
2   Dharmadam Kayal   359.06  
3   Valapattanam   3077.64  
4   Palakkode   598.25  
5   Cheruvathur   30.58  
TOTAL   4157.42  
14   Kasaragode   1   Cheruvathur   1123.12  
2   Nileswaram   824.69  
3   Chittari Kayal   89.33  
4   Bekal Kayal   43.37  
5   Kappil Pozhi   2.22  
6   Neembil Kayal   22.47  
7   Chandragiri   575.81`  
TOTAL   2681.01  
 
Source : Fisheries Department

166 
  Rain Water 
India  is home to an extraordinary variety  of climatic regions, ranging from tropical  in the 
south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained 
winter  snowfall.  The  nation's  climate  is  strongly  influenced  by  the  Himalayas  and  the  Thar 
Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, preve nt cold Central 
Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than 
most  locations  at  similar  latitudes.  Simultaneously,  the  Thar  Desert  plays  a  role  in  attracting 
moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds, that, between June and September, provide 
the  majority  of  India's  rainfall.  The  rainfall  in  the  country  is  mostly  confined  to  four  monsoon 
months between June to September during which almost 80% of the total rainfall takes place. 
Rainwater harvesting can enable households, factories, schools and offices to overcome 
their  problems  of  irregular  and  inadequate  water  supply  or  water  supply  of  poor  quality.  The 
process  involves  storing  rainwater  that  falls  within  one’s  premises  and  re -using  it  after  basic 
treatment.  By  using  equipment  that  is  easily  available,  rainwater  is  diverted  towards  existing 
underground  tanks  or  terrace  fitted  tanks  and  then  supplied  to  the  taps.  The  purification 
methods can be used by households, factories and offices to treat rainwater. Treated rainwater 
is  safe  not  just  for  cleaning  and  washing  but  also  for  cooking  and  personal  consumption.  The 
amount  of  rainfall  notwithstanding,  people  living  and  working  in  various  types  of  geographical 
terrains can harvest rainwater. In the long run, ra inwater harvesting can replenish India’s rapidly 
depleting ground water levels, and lead to water security and sustainability.  
Rivers  Out  of  th
e 44  rivers  flowing  through  the  State ,  41originate  from  the  Western  Ghats 
region on the east of the state and flo w  westward to join the Lakshadweep sea; The remaining 
three  rivers  (Kabani,  Bhavani  and  Paambar)  originate  from  the  Western  Ghats  and  flo
ws  
towards  the  east  and  finally  join  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  after  flowing  through  the  neighbouring 
S
tates .

167 
   
Table : 6.10  List of 44 major Rivers of Kerala 2013- 14 
  Sl. 
No.   Flowing Rivers of Kerala   Place of Origin   Empties Into   Length (K m)  
1 .    
Anjarakkandi    
Arabian Sea   52  
2 .    
Achenkovil    
Pampa   128  
3 .    
Baikal    
-   10  
4 .    
Bharathapuzha (Nila)   Anamalai 
(Tamil   Nadu)   Arabian Sea   209  
5 .    
Chalak kudy   Anamalai   Periyar   144  
6 .    
Chaliyar   Elampaleri Hills   Arabian Sea   168  
7 .    
Chandragiri     Arabian Sea   104  
8 .    
Chittar     Arabian Sea   25  
9 .    
Itthikkara   Madathara   Paravoor Lake   56  
10 .    
Kaariyankode     Kavvai Lake   64  
11 .     Kadalundi     Arabian Sea   130  
12 .    
Kallada   Kulathoorpuzha 
hill s   Ashtamudi lake   120  
13 .    
Kallai     Arabian Sea   22  
14 .    
Kalnadu     -   8  
15 .    
Karamana     Arabian Sea   67  
16 .    
Karuvannoor   Poomalai   Enamaakkal Lake   48  
17 .    
Kavvai     Kavvai Lake   22  
18 .    
Keecheri     Enamaakkal Lake   43  
19 .    
Korappuzha   Arikkan Hills   Arabian Sea   40  
20 .    
Kumbala       10  
21 .    
Kuppam     Val apattanam 
River   80  
22 .    
Kuttyadi     Arabian Sea   73  
23 .    
Maahi   Wayanad Hills   Arabian Sea   54  
24 .    
Manjeshwaram   Baleppooney 
hills   Uppala Lake   16  
25 .    
Manimala   Thattamalai   Pampa   91

168 
  26 .    
Maugral     Arabian Sea   33  
27 K    
Meenachil     Vembanadu lake   67  
28 K    
Muvattupuzha     -   120  
29 K    
Neeleshwaram     Kaariyankode 
River   46  
30 K    
Neiyyar   Agasthi Hills   Arabian Sea   56  
31 K     Pampa   Peermedu   Vembanad lake   176  
32 K    
Periyar   Sivagiri   Kodangalloor lake   244  
33 K    
Perumpa     -   40  
34 K    
Purapparamba     -   8  
35 K    
Ramapurampuzha   Eringal Hills   Arabian Sea   19  
36 K    
Shiriya     Arabian Sea   65  
37 K    
Thalass eri     Arabian Sea   28  
38 K    
Tiroor     Bharatapuzha   48  
39 K    
Uppala     Arabian Sea   50  
40 K    
Valapattanam   Brahmagiri 
Forests   Arabian Sea   112  
41 K    
Vamanapuram     Anchuthengu Lake   80  
Length of the rivers are approximate measures and are likely to vary with time and 
season.  
#   East  Flowing Rivers     Length 
(km)  
42   Paampar  
Paampar  and  Bhavani  flows  into 
Tamilnadu.  Kabani  enters  Karnataka. 
All three of them empties into Kaveri   Flows  only 
a  few 
kilometres 
through 
Kerala  43   Bhavani  
44   Kabani  
 
  Source : Fisheries Department

169 
  Table : 6.11 Minimum and Maximum Observed values of water quality parameters at PWD sites and River Stations : 2014 
Sl. 
No.   Name of River   Name of Site   Quality Parameters  
pH   Dissolved Oxygen   B.O.D   Coliform bacteria  
Class  
Max   Min   Mean   Max   Min   Mean   Max   Min   Mean   Max   Min   Mean  
1 .    Neyyar   Amaravila 
(Neyyatinkara 
Village)     8.0   6.3   7.05   7.8   5.8   7.71   1.5   0.2   0.62   790   430   624.16   C  
Aruvippuram 
(Perumkadavila 
Village)   7.5   6.5   6.98   7.9   6.6   7.19   1.6   0.1   0.59   700   310   435   C  
2 .    Mamom   Mamom  Bridge 
(Attingal Village)   7.9   6 .5   7.09   7.3   5.2   677   1.9   0.4   0.84   1600   920   1268.3
3   C  
3 .    Ayroor   Ayoor  Bridge 
(Ayroor Village)   7.8   6.2   6.94   7.4   4.6   6.3   3.9   0.2   1.62   2400   1300   2008.3
3   C  
4 .    Karamana   Aruvikkara   7.4   6.5   7   7.8   6.8   7.35   0.5   0.1   0.14   920   310   410.83   C  
Moonnattumukku 
(Thiruvallom v illage)   8.5   7.3   7.73   4.1   0   1.9   40   3.4   26.86   54000   16000   37250   E  
5 .    Ithikkara   Ithikkara Bridge   8.0   6.8   7.42   6.9   5.1   6.05   2.8   1.2   1.95   920   210   521.66   E  
Ayroor Bridge   7.9   7   7.51   7.7   3.9   6.73   2.4   1   1.63   1100   110   474.16   C  
6 .    Vamanapuram   Vamanapuram 
Village   8.0   6.8   7.48   8   5.5   6.87   0.9   0.4   0.59   2200   1100   1625   C  
Pallickal   Nellimughal   7.9   6.7   7.6   6.7   5   6.01   1.6   0.8   1.26   920   140   525   C  
7 .    Achenkovil   Kallarakkadavu   7.9   6.4   7.47   7.7   4.9   6.67   1.6   0.8   1.32   790   180   459.09   C  
Chennithala   7.9   7   7.42   7.1   4.8   5.79   2   1.2   1. 4   1100   430   690   C  
Thumpamon   7.8   7.2   7.5   7.6   4.8   6.69   2   1   1.36   630   180   420.83   C  
Pandalom   7.9   6.7   7.53   7.4   5.9   6.72   2   1.2   1.35   790   240   442.5   C  
Kallada   Perumthottamkadav   8.1   7.3   7.61   7.8   5.9   7.19   2   1   1.31   630   220   405.45   C  
8 .    Pamba   Pamba  Down 
(Mannar  7.2   6.4   6.88   4.7   2.8   3.71   0.9   0.2   0.48   350   240   293.63   C

170
 
  Pan chayath)  
Chenganoor 
Muncipality   7.3   6.5   6.81   6.6   3.7   5.07   1   0.2   0.62   430   230   302.72   C  
Thakazhy 
Panchayath   6.9   6.4   6.75   6.2   3   4.8   2   0.2   0.69   460   240   340.9   C  
9 .    Meenachil   Kidangoor 
Panchayath   7.1   6 .1   6.59   7.9   5.5   6.81   0.7   0.2   0.48   7000   1400   2963.6
3   C  
10 .    Manimala   Thondara  (Kuttoor 
Panchayath)   7.3   6.4   6.94   7.3   5.8   6.52   4.1   0.2   1.34   0.08   1600   220   C  
Kallooppara 
Panchayath   7.2   6.1   6.8   7.8   5.9   6.79   7.4   0.4   1.73   1100   220   683063   C  
11 .    Periyar   Eloor  (Kadunga llore 
Panchayath)   7.5   6.4   6.84   6   3.8   4.83   4   0.4   1.81   1600   110   610.9   E  
Kalady Panchayath   7.9   6.3   7.02   7.8   6.6   7.05   1.7   0.2   1   1100   49   526.27   C  
KWA  Aluva 
Muncipality   8.0   6.2   6.95   7.2   5.7   6.58   2   0.5   1.32   1100   110   498.18   C  
SOP  Aluva 
Muncipality   7.7   6.6   6.92   6.9   5.3   6.31   2   0.4   1.21   2200   63   789.36   C  
Pathalam 
(Kadungallore 
Panchayath)   7.8   6.2   6.8   7   0.4   5.6   4.6   0.7   1.97   2100   63   777.54   E  
Kalamassery 
Muncipality   8.1   6.1   6.94   7.5   4.4   5.87   8.4   1.6   3.2   3500   350   1226.3
6   C  
Purapallikadavu 
(Chengamanadu 
Pa nchayath)   8.0   6.3   7.1   7.4   6.1   6.64   2.2   0.4   1.25   3100   21   832.81   E  
Muppathadam 
(Kadungallore 
Panchayath)   7.7   6.2   6.85   8   5.2   6.25   2.6   0   1.26   2300   210   987.27   C  
12 .    Moovattupuzha   Vettikkattumukku 
(Mevallore 
Panchayath)   6.9   6.2   6.72   7.8   6.2   6.91   0.9   0.3   0.56   63 00   1100   3363.6
3   C

171
 
  13 .    Chalakudy 
puzha   Pullickakadavu 
(Kadakutty 
Panchayath)   7.5   6.1   6.87   8   5.5   6.8   2.2   0.2   1.13   1100   49   551.72   C  
14 .    Karuvanoor   Karuvanoor  Bridge 
(Porathissery 
Village)   7.7   6.8   7.22   7.3   4.4   6.25   3.6   0.5   1.37   1100   210   509.09   C  
15 .    Puzhakal   Puzhakk al  Bridge 
(Adat Panchayath)   8.0   6.7   7.26   6.3   2.8   4.34   2.7   0.2   1.59   1700   210   742   C  
16 .    Keecheri   Vadakkancherry 
(Eranellur Village)   8.3   6.6   7.38   7.6   0.6   5.5   3.5   0.5   1.62   1100   280   697   C  
 
17 .    Bharatha puzha   Kuttippuram 
Panchayath   8.1   6.9   7.34   7.6   5.8   6.87   1.6   0.1   0 .69   1100   79   497   C  
Pattambi 
Panchayath   8.3   7   7.68   7.7   4.6   6.59   3.8   0.2   1.63   1300   240   571   C  
18 .    Kadalundi   Thirurangadi Village   7.8   5.7   6.83   7.6   5.8   6.83   2.8   0.5   1.64   630   22   318   C  
Hajiyarpally 
(Panakad Village)   7.8   6   6.88   7.8   5.6   6.9   2.8   0.5   1.54   540   43   2 35   C  
19 .    Tirur   Thalakkadathur 
(Cheriyamundam 
Village)   7.6   6.3   6.90   7.1   2.7   4.65   4.8   0.7   2.1   460   21   234   C  
20 .    Chaliyar   Koolimadu 
(Chathamangalam 
Panchayath)   8.0   6.8   7.52   8   5.9   6.96   2.1   0.3   0.79   9400   300   3691   C  
Nilambur   7.9   6.8   7.38   8   5.7   7.13   1   0.1   0.65   4300   70   1372   C  
Chungapally 
(Perumana 
Panchayath)   8.0   6.7   7.42   7.4   4.2   6.64   1   0.3   0.77   6300   430   1760   E  
21 .    Kabani   Muthankara 
(Mananthavadi 
Panchayath)   8.2   7   7.70   7.9   5.7   6.64   0.8   0.2   0.44   180   33   95   A  
22 .    Bhavani   Elaichivazhi  (Agali 
Panchayath)   8.4   6.9   7.6   7.8   6. 5   7.33   1.8   0.2   0.72   790   110   298.18   C

172
 
  23 .    Kuttiyadipuzha   Estatemukku 
(Chakkittappara 
Panchayath)   7.6   6.8   7.16   8.2   6   7.08   0.8   0.2   0.63   1600   140   635   C  
24 .    Mahe   Valayam  (Valayam 
Panchayath)   8.0   6.7   7.34   7.9   5   6.5   0.9   0.2   0.64   35000   700   7645   C  
25 .    Kallai Puzha   Kallai   Bridge 
(Kozhikode 
Corporation)   8.4   6.8   13.13   6.9   0.6   3.91   2   0.3   1.14   210000   5400   63973   E  
26 .    Korapuzha   Kanayankode   8.3   7   7.45   8   4.9   6.109   1.5   0.06   0.65   5400   430   2611   E  
27 .    Kuppam   Taliparamba 
(Taliparamba 
Village)   7.1   6.4   6.78   8.3   4.4   6.07   2.3   0.2   1.53   430   94   172   E  
Rayoram  (Alakkode 
Village)   7.3   6.5   6.88   8.3   4.9   7.36   2.1   0.3   1.15   310   100   158   C  
28 .    Thalassery   Pathipalam 
(Patyam)   7.1   6.2   6.56   7.8   2.9   5.76   2.5   0.2   0.87   430   94   157.09   C  
29 .    Ancharakkandy   Ancharakkandy 
Village   7.0   6.4   6.7   7.8   4   6.47   2.6   0.2   1.29   790   9 4   321   C  
Meruvamba 
(Vengad Village)   7.3   6.5   6.93   7.7   5.3   6.68   2   0.4   0.88   310   49   178   C  
30 .    Ramapuram   Ramapuram  Bridge 
(Cheruthazham 
Village)   7.3   6   6.67   7.5  
  2.1   4.46   4   0.3   1.56   350   70   180   E  
31 .    Kavai   Kuttiyolpalam 
(Peralam Village)   7.3   6.3   6.65   7.9   3.2   5.58   2 .6   0.4   1.14   310   79   147   C  
32 .    Valapattanam   Parassanikkadavu   7.5   6.5   7   7.9   4.1   6.65   2   0.3   0.85   210   0   100   E  
33 .    Neeleswaram   Hosdurg 
(Neeleswaram 
Village)   7.9   6.2   7.2   7.3   4.7   6.25   3.6   0.3   1.51   2200   43   565   E  
Nambiarckal 
(Hosdurg Village)   7.5   6.2   6.81   8   5.5   7   4.2   0.3   1.8   170   0   65   E

173
 
  34 .    Karingode   Kakkadavu 
(Cheemeni Village)   7.9   6.2   7.08   8   6.8   7.63   3.4   0.5   1.23   1600   170   731   C  
35 .    Chandragiri 
Puzha   Padiayathadka   7.8   602   7016   8.1   6.7   7.5   3.6   0.3   1.17   1300   110   596   C  
36 .    Mogral   Mogral  Bridge 
(Mogral Village)   7.9   6.2   7.11   7.2   3.9   5.6   4.1   0.6   2.09   920   21   486   E  
37 .    Shriya   Angadimogaru 
Village   7.4   6.6   6.92   8.4   7.06   7.706   2.6   1   1.81   1200   280   598   C  
38 .    Uppala   Uppala  Bridge 
(Uppala Village)   7.8   6.7   7.13   8   4.9   6.89   3.1   0.1   1.16   2100   43   650   E  
39 .    Manjeswaram   Bajrakkara  Bridge 
(Vorcadi Villa ge)   7.2   6.5   6.93   8   6.9   7.47   4.4   1   1.78   1400   140   686   C  
40 .    Peruvamba   Chandrapura 
(Kadanapally 
Village)   7.3   6   6.52   7.7   4   6.49   1.7   0.3   0.85   540   49   183   C  
 
Source: State Pollution Control Board

174 
  Watersheds 
A  watershed  is  a  georgraphical  area  that  drains  to  a  common  point,  which  makes  it  an 
ideal  unit  of  conservation  of  soil  and  water.  Micro  Watershed  in  the  Grama  Panchayat  are 
chosen  for  easy  administration.  It  is  a  logical  unit  for  planning  in  the  three  tier  system  of  Local 
Self  Government  and  optimum  development  of  the  “resource  trinity”  namely  land,  water  and 
biomass. It may extend over a Grama Panchayat or several Panchayts, contain both arable and 
non -arable lands, various categories of land-holdings and farmers whose action may impact on 
each  other’s  interest.  In  those  Watersheds  extending  beyond  a  Grama  Panchayat,  the 
Panchayat  having  major  area  in  the  Watershed  will  be  the  Programme  Implementing  Agency. 
The  Programme  Implementing  Agency  should  arrange  collection  and  compilation  of  baseline 
data  on  land  use  pattern,  cropping  pattern,  productivity  of  important  crops,  water  level  of  wells 
and ponds, socio-economic data of watershed population etc.  before starting any intervention in 
the  project  area.  The  water  shed  development  programme  taken  up  in  the  State  through  the 
Western  Ghats  Development  Programme  (WGDP)  with  the  financial  support  of  Government  of 
India  is  given  in  table  6.12.  The  basic  intentions  of  the  programme  is  to  preserve  the  natural 
resources  with  the  judicious  use  of  resources  and  conservation  methods.  Other  agencies  like 
soil  conservation  Department  and  Rural  Development  Department  also  implementing  various 
schemes and programmes for watershed based development programmes.

175  
   
 
Table : 6.12  Watersheds during 2013-14  
  Sl. 
No.   District   Name of  
Watershed   Area in Ha   Panchayat  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   Perayam   297   Vithura  
Aliyad   600   Manickal  
Iruloor   799   Vamanapuram  
2   Kollam   Ambara   260   Pavithreswaram  
Thottuva   486   West Kallada  
Valiyapadam   540   West Kallad  
3   Pathanamthitta   Thenginal   250   Pall ickal  
Melood   535   Pallickal  
Elamannoor I   710   Enadimangalam  
Elamannoor II   380   Enadimangalam  
Kodumudi   450   Chittar,Vadaserikkara  
Arthakandanmoozhy   350   Aruvappulam  
Paruthymoozhy   245   Aruvappulam  
Mannadi   173   Kadambanad  
Puthusseribhagam   255   Erathu  
4   Kottayam   Parappallythode   600   Meenachal  
Uppukulam   496   Manimala  
Maniakkupara   525   Marangattupally  
5   Idukki   Asarikkavala   428   Erattayar  
Ezhikumvayal -  
Kumbanmala   611   Nedumkandom  
Kuzhitholu -
Kambanmettu   933   Karunapuram  
6   Ernakulam   Mattathu kandomthode   556   Keerampara  
Kakkad   367   Piravom  
7   Thrissur   Thommana 
Padinjarepadam   590   Velukkara  
Karigachirapadam   516   Puthenchira  
8   Palakkadu   Mulankavu   610   Kulukkallur  
Velladikkunnu   580   Thirumittakkode  
Chathikuzhy   900   Mankara  
Ambankadavu   675   Kanjirampuzha

176  
  Annamthodi   760   Thachanattukara  
9   Malappuram   Moorkanadthode   590   Moorkanad  
Athithode   550   Vazhikkadavu  
Neettilthode   800   Mankada  
10   Kozhikode   Elambilathmoozhithode   607   Perambra  
Manthrathode   434   Karasseri  
11   Wayanadu   Nedunilam   475   Kalpetta Municipality  
Karikkilode   350   Vengappally  
Kokkuzhy   706   Kottathara  
Chingadikkunnu   187   Kaniyanbetta  
Naduvanthar Sarvany   374   Thirunelly  
Vattathoor   144   Mullankolly  
Karachal   445   Amabalavayal  
Kallumukku   286   Noolpuzha  
Thalippuzha   2 50   Vythiri  
Sreepuram -
Kakkampuzha   444   Vythiri  
Ayiramkolly   195   Ambalavayal  
12   Kannur   Rayarome   460   Alkoode  
Padappengad   430   Chapprappadavu, 
Naduvil  
Adicheri 
Thazhathuvayal   300   Malapattom  
Nidumpramchaal   610   Kanichar, Kolayad  
Kolladi   340   Alakk ode  
Parakkadi   470   Chengalai  
Kundula Chappa   680   Kanichar. Kolayad  
Taalipaara   420   Udayagiri  
Kaipankuzhy   470   Naduvil  
Parippai   610   Sreekandapuram, 
Chengalai  
Umayanchal   440   Cherupuzha  
Muvanchal   412   Naduvil  
Chambocheri   430   Malappattam  
Pudusseripoyil   390   Koliyad  
13   Kasaragod   Pookkayam I   217   Panathady  
 
Source : Western Ghats Development Programme

177  
  Coast Line of Kerala 
 
Kerala is a coastal state bordered on the west by Arabian Sea. The coastline of the state 
runs  to  a  length  of  about  590  Km.  The  continental  shelf  area  is  39139  Sq.Km.  The  Exclusive 
Economic  Zone  (EEZ)  extends up  to  200  nautical  miles  far  beyond  the continental  shelf,  which 
covers  an  area  of  218536  Sq.Km.  provide  opportunities  in  traditional  fishing  in  inshore  waters 
from ages. Thus fisheries form one of the most important sectors of Kerala's economy. 
Table : 6.13  District-wise Distribution of Coast Line of Kerala  Sl. 
No.   District   Coast line length        
(in km)   Percentage of 
Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   78   13.22  
2   Kollam   37   6.27  
3   Alappuzha   82   13.90  
4   Ernakulam   46   7.80  
5   Thrissur   54   9.15  
6   Malappuram   70   11.87  
7   Kozhikode   71   12.03  
8   Kannur   82   13.90  
9   Kasaragod   70   11.86  
  TOTAL   590   100.00  
 
Source : Fisheries Department

178 
  Water Supply 
Kerala  water  authority  is  an  autonomous  authority  established  for  the  development  and 
regulation  of  water  supply  and  waste  water  collection  and  disposal.  Kerala  Water  Authority  is 
the largest entity  in the field of water supply and implemented thousands of small, medium and 
large  urban  and  rural  piped  water  supply  schemes.    The  interaction  between  water  and  human 
health  are  indeed  complex.  Access  to  safe  drinking  water  is  a  recognised  Universal  human 
need.    Kerala  Water  Authority  came  into  existence  on  I st
  April  1984.  Government  of  Keral a 
thousand  of  water  supply  schemes  were  implemented  under  the  Panchayat  System  as  well.  
The  State  also  gets  rain  from  the  North-East  monsoon  during  October  to  December  and  the 
South west monsoon during May to June. In early period the rural household for  domestic water 
supply  depends  are  traditional  ground  water  system  and  rarely  use  piped  water  supply  system 
and early used pipe water system. 
With  the  high  density  of  population,  Industrialisation  and  rapid  urbanisation  on  the  one 
hard  and  the  impact  of  climate  change  the  availability  of  different  user  groups  on  the  other 
climate condition of the earth has been changing over the few year.  This will affect the weather 
condition of Kerala. 
Ground Water     
Ground water is one among the nations most important  natural resources. Groundwater 
has been the main stay for meeting the domestic needs of more than 80 % of rural and 50% of 
urban  population.  The  ground  water  level  receding  drastically  during  the  summer  months  and 
drying up of wells are common features of  the ground water levels in many parts of Kerala. The 
availability  of  the  ground  water  level  between  the  post  and  one  monsoon  levels  varies  widely.  
Kerala water authority is a autonomous authority established for the development and regulation 
of water supply and waste water collection and disposal. The National Water policy of the Govt. 
of  India  states  that  the  non conventional  method  for  utilisation  of  water  such  a  through  artificial 
recharge of ground water and traditional  water conservation practices like rain water harvesting 
need to be practised to increase the utilisable water resources.  In the past we used to depend 
more  on  surface  water  sources  like  rivers  ponds  and  streams.    But  with  depletion  of  water 
bodies  due  to  extremes  summer  and  other  factors  the  peoples  shifted  our  focus  to  ground 
water.

179  
  Jalanidhi Project 
  Jalanidhi is a project of Kerala Rural Water Supply Authority (KRWSA) which is aided by 
World  Bank.    The  World  Bank  aided  Jalanidhi  scheme  for  rural  water  supply.    It  aims  to  assist 
Govt  of  Kerala  in  improving  the  quality  of  rural  water  supply  and  delivery  of  environmental 
sanitation  services  to  achieve  sustainability  of  investment.    The  KRWSA  was  launched  as  a 
nodal agency to facilitate the implementation of rural water supply systems.  Jalanidhi – I Project 
completed during the year 2000-08 with the cost of Rs.381.50 crores had completed 3705 water 
supply  schemes  covering  112  Grama  panchayaths.    Consequent  to  the  successful 
implementation  of  Jalanidhi-I,  Govt  of  Kerala  has  decided  to  implement  Jalanidhi  -2  with  world 
bank support Jalanidhi projects covers 112 Grama Panchayaths from all districts of Kerala. 
  Jalanidhi  I  &  II  water  supply  connection  provided  in  domestic  and  non  domestic 
purposes, 195928 and 175 connection respectively.   
  Dug wells are unlined boreholes and used for maximum height of free water over intake 
length.  Piezometers  are  line  bore  holes  used  for  measuring  pressure  of  free  water  at  intake 
depth.  On the analysis of date related to ground water, the total number of dug wells is 428 but 
piezometers  are  426.    Kasargode  has  highest  dug  well  at  rate  of  9%,  but  piezometers  has 
highest in Thiruvananthapuram at rate of 10%. 
  KWA  implement  many  schemes  related  to  drinking  water  in  the  state.    Schemes  are 
divided  into  2  streams  namely  urban  water  supply  and  rural  water  supply.    Rural  water  supply 
schemes  included  multi  Panchayath  and  single  Panchayath.    In  rural  water  supply  schemes 
,single  panchayath  has  1067  connections  .    It  is  comparatively  higher  than  multi  Panchayath 
schemes and urban water supply schemes.

180 
  Table :  6.14  Summary of major components of Dynamic Ground Water Resources of Kerala 
Sl. 
No.   District   Command/  
non -
command/  
Total 
(Sq.Km)   Recharge 
from 
rainfall 
during 
monsoon 
season 
(Ha.m)   Recharge 
from other 
sources 
during 
monsoon 
season 
(Ha.m)   Recharge 
from rainfall 
during  non 
monsoon 
season 
(Ha.m)   Recharge 
from other 
sources 
during  non 
monsoon 
season 
(Ha.m)   Total 
Annual 
Ground 
Water 
Recharge 
(Ha.m)   Provision 
for 
natural 
discharge 
(Ha.m)   Net Annual 
Ground 
Water 
Ava ilability 
(Ha.m)  
1   Alappuzha   1414.03   30407.07   69.76   7300.06   10869.00   48645.90   3355.78   45290.11  
2   Ernakulam   2368.50   42495.98   483.32   7949.93   13578.24   64499.47   6172.78   58326.69  
3   Idukki   1031.86   16232.72   110.49   3118.92   2376.33   21838.47   2183.85   19654.62  
4   K annur   2346.28   45296.16   679.46   0.00   7255.89   53231.51   5218.87   48012.65  
5   Kasargod   1630.67   31038.83   814.96   0.00   4689.82   36543.61   3654.36   32889.25  
6   Kollam   2490.97   31964.73   166.33   10452.04   4172.48   46755.58   4534.58   42221.00  
7   kottayam   2040.29   34779.52   133.05   7330.56   6938.94   49182.06   4611.98   44570.08  
8   Kozhikkode   1674.83   36227.34   229.34   0.00   1447.19   37903.86   3441.58   34462.28  
9   Malappuram   2453.62   40080.52   360.01   5590.17   8499.97   54530.67   4975.66   49555.00  
10   Palakkad   3179.90   45501.18   1741.87   7769.01   30802.12   8 5814.18   7431.58   78382.60  
11   Pathanamthitta   1319.77   18208.10   122.91   6125.56   3461.28   27917.85   2616.23   25301.62  
12   Thiruvananthapuram   2207.87   24891.61   284.81   7438.60   2980.83   35595.85   2724.39   32871.46  
13   Thrissur   2866.07   57151.20   1071.64   0.00   17282.13   75504 .97   7352.16   68152.81  
14   Wayanad   1055.89   30407.16   21.30   0.00   246.26   30674.72   3067.47   27607.25  
  Total   28087.54   484682.14   6289.26   63066.84   114600.47   668638.71   63341.27   607297.44  
  TOTAL in BCM     4.85   0.06   0.63   1.15   6.69   0.61   6.07  
Source: Dynamic Ground Wate
r Resources of  Kerala (2011)

181  
  Table : 6.15  Annual Ground Water Recharge  
 
Source: Dynamic Ground Water Resources of  Kerala  (2011)  Sl.  
No   District   Net Annual  
Ground 
Water  
Availability  
(Ha.m)   Existing 
Gross Ground 
Water Draft 
for irrigation  
(Ha.m)   Existing 
Gross 
Ground 
Water Draft 
for domestic 
and 
industrial 
wat er supply   Existing 
Gross 
Ground 
water Draft 
for all uses  
(Ha.m)   Provision for 
Domestic 
and 
industrial 
requirement 
supply up to 
2025 (Ha.m)   Net Ground 
Water 
availability 
for future 
irrigation 
development  
(Ha.m)   Stage of 
Ground Water 
Development 
(%)  
1   Alapp uzha   45290.11   2991.87   10040.47   13032.34   10372.60   31926.64   29  
2   Ernakulam   58326.69   10308.49   13931.32   24239.82   15295.83   32722.37   42  
3   Idukki   19654.62   2873.72   5495.94   8369.67   5985.33   10795.57   43  
4   Kannur   48012.65   10943.33   10939.17   21882.50   11932.23   25137.0 9   46  
5   Kasargod   32889.25   16704.82   6774.71   23479.53   7797.51   8386.91   71  
6   Kollam   42221.00   4014.97   11932.86   15947.83   13015.56   25190.47   38  
7   kottayam   44570.08   3490.69   9214.29   12704.99   10704.21   30375.18   29  
8   Kozhikkode   34462.28   5200.40   14023.92   19224.32   157 92.55   13469.33   56  
9   Malappuram   49555.00   8166.41   20234.67   28401.08   24392.10   16996.50   57  
10   Palakkad   78382.60   35494.33   13151.26   48645.59   14197.15   28894.24   62  
11   Pathanamthitta   25301.62   3462.72   6004.47   9467.20   6304.40   15534.50   37  
12   Thiruvananthapuram   328 71.46   3984.99   13315.72   17300.71   14699.19   14187.28   53  
13   Thrissur   68152.81   22167.50   13720.24   35887.73   15216.48   30768.84   53  
14   Wayanad   27607.25   652.00   4318.70   4970   4815.96   22139.29   18  
  KERALA STATE   607297.44   130456.25   153097.75   283554.00   170520.00   306524. 22   47  
  (BCM)   6.07   1.31   1.53   2.84   1.71   3.07   47

182  
  Table :  6.16  Ground Water Monitoring Wells in Kerala  
Sl.  
No.   Districts   No. of GWMW  
Dug Wells   Piezometers   Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   31   41   72  
2   Kollam   25   30   55  
3   Pathanamthitta   17   30   47  
4   Alappuzha   29   40   69  
5   Kottayam   23   29   52  
6   Idukki   22   25   47  
7   Ernakulam   39   25   64  
8   Thrissur   31   37   68  
9   Palakkadu   31   37   68  
10   Malappuram   28   30   58  
11   Kozhikode   34   34   68  
12   Wayanadu   25   19   44  
13   Kannur   39   28   67  
14   Kasargode   49   21   70  
TOTAL   423   426   849  
       
Source: Dynamic Ground Water Resources of  Kerala  (2011)

183

184 
  Table : 6.17  Physical achievements under Ground Water Development Schemes 2013-
14 
  Sl.  
No.   Items   Unit   2009 - 10   2010 - 11   2011 - 12   2012 - 13   20 13 - 14  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8  
1   Detailed Hydroligical Survey 
(Site Selection)     5969   5244   7174   8500   10134  
2   Siting and providing technical 
assistance for open wells     862   496   916   966   904  
3  
  Siting and construction of 
different types of drilled wells     1561   1162   1 206   1240   2130  
4   Creation of additional irrigation 
facilities              
5   Training of personnel     12 officers 
attend 
different 
training 3 
officers 
attend DSS 
Planning     23 Officers 
attend 
various 
trainig   54 officers 
attended STP 
Training and 3 
officers 
attended  
CGWB, 5 
officers 
attended 
workshop on 
ground water 
prospect map.   17 officers attended training 
on procurement procedures 
at IMG.Trivandrum.  3 
officers attend train ing on 
pump test at CGWB. Raipur, 
30  Officers attened National 
Conference on safe drinkin g 
water at Ernakulam. Three  
officers attended workshop 
on aquifer mapping at 
Hydrabad. Six officers 
attended Workshop at 
CGWB Trivandrum  
6   Water Sample analysis     3822   2900   3478   2952   4400  
 
Source: Ground Water Department

185 
  Table : 6.18  District wise Population covered by Water Supply Scheme 2013-
14   
Sl. 
No.    
District   Rural 
population 
covered   % to Total 
Rural 
population   Urban 
population 
covered   % to total 
Urban 
population   Total 
population 
covered   % to Total 
population  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   873399   57.16   894 797   50.29   1768196   53.46  
2   Kollam   1094521   75.83   459269   38.71   1553790   59.09  
3   Pathanamthitta   418636   39.34   74427   56.62   493063   41.24  
4   Alappuzha   882521   90.52   201325   17.55   1083846   51.08  
5   Kottayam   601652   42.56   167615   29.63   769267   38.86  
6   Idukki   241518   22.8 8   28161   54.13   269679   24.35  
7   Ernakulam   1915185   182.87   760707   34.07   2675892   81.59  
8   Thrissur   994509   97.45   445235   21.31   1439744   46.29  
9   Palakkad   765479   35.88   245035   36.18   1010514   35.95  
10   Malappuram   863377   37.63   165727   9.12   1029104   25.03  
11   Kozhikode   50 0477   49.32   516655   24.9   1017132   32.92  
12   Wayanad   430576   54.85   11659   36.92   442235   54.16  
13   Kannur   587210   66.52   158179   9.63   745389   29.51  
14   Kasargode   197782   24.80   34975   6.92   232757   17.87  
  Total   10366842   59.39   4163766   26.13   14530608   43.52  
 
Source: Kerala Water Authority

186 
  Table : 6.19  District and Category wise Number of Water Supply scheme KWA in 
operation 2013-14   
Sl.No.    
Name of District   No.of Urban 
Water supply 
schemes   Rural water supply 
schemes  
 
Total  
Multi 
panchayat   Single 
panchayat  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   6   10   94   110  
2   Kollam   3   5   66   74  
3   Pathanamthitta   2   8   63   73  
4   Alappuzha   4   1   61   66  
5   Kottayam   5   21   84   110  
6   Idukki   1   11   89   101  
7   Ernakulam   8   17   82   107  
8   Thrissur   4   7   104   115  
9   Palakkad   4   8   84   9 6  
10   Malappuram   5   10   42   57  
11   Kozhikode   2   12   87   101  
12   Wayanad   0   5   25   30  
13   Kannur   3   5   109   117  
14   Kasargode   1   5   77   83  
  Total   48   125   1067   1240  
 
Source: Kerala Water of Authority

187

188 
  Table : 6.
20  District wise details of water supply connections and street Taps 2013- 14 
   
Sl. 
No.    
District   Water Supply connection   Street taps  
Domestic   Non -
Domestic   Industrial   Total   Panchayat   Corporation /  
Muncipality   Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   250683   35819   102   286604   12449   5615   18064  
2   Kollam   131523   6257   198   137978   14716   4770   19486  
3   Pathanamthitta   61820   2820   36   64676   10567   1550   12117  
4   Alappuzha   132809   4396   184   137389   22967   4422   27389  
5   Kottayam   75654   5419   75   81148   7599   2096   9695  
6   Idukki   22054   1997   5   24056   3276   532   3808  
7   Ernakulam   352167   25606   220   377993   29791   9286   39077  
8   Thrissur   135554   4967   46   140567   22055   5370   27425  
9   Palakkad   106067   6707   82   112856   13744   3214   16958  
10   Malappuram   62769   3698   9   66476   7255   2331   95 86  
11   Kozhikode   59963   4105   28   64096   4516   3525   8041  
12   Wayanad   13340   1325   3   14668   4216   222   4438  
13   Kannur   42932   5342   77   48351   5582   1632   7214  
14   Kasargode   17141   994   10   18145   3170   599   3769  
  Total   1464476   109452   1075   1575003   161903   45164   207067  
 
Source: Kerala Water of Authority

189  
  Table : 6.21
  District wise & category wise number of ongoing water supply schemes during 2013- 14   
 
 
 
Name of District   Number of ongoing Water Supply schemes (including Major and Minor water supply schemes)  
 
Total  Rural water supply schemes   Urban water supply schemes  NRDWP
 	
Technology 	
Mission
 	
TRP schemes 	funded by Govt
 	
State Plan
 	
SAARK
 (2010
-11)
 	
New Wa
ter 	
Supply 	
Schemes
 (2013
-	
14)
 	
NABARD
 	
Externally 	
Assisted (JICA)
 	
Deposit works 	of KWA (For 	schemes of 	
local 	
bodies/other 	agencies)
 
Saark (2009
-10) 	
New capital 	schemes
 	
Completion of 	ongoing UWSS
-	
special package
 	
Externally 	
Assisted (JICA)
 	
JNNURM
 	
SAARK (2009
-	
10
) 	
Replacement of  	
old  pipes.
 	
UIDSSMT
 	
Bank
 
Thiruvananthapuram   17   -  	
Completed
  4   -   -   4   -   73   1   2   1   1  	
Now taken under new head
-Replacement of old 	
and obsolete pipe
  -   -   103  
Kollam   11   -   0   -   -   1   1   60   -   -   -   -   -   -   73  
Pathanamthitta   20   -   1   -   -   1   -   131   -   -   -   -   -   -   153  
Alappuzha   8   1   1   -   -     -   25   -   -   -   -   1   -   36  
Kottayam   25   -   6   -   -   1   -   50   1   -   -   -   2   -   85  
Idukki   21   -   -   -   -   1   -   18   -   -   -   -   -   -   40  
Ernakulam   14   -   -   -   -   1   -   385   -   1   -   1   -   -   402  
Thrissur   6   -   -   1   -   3   -   326   -   5   -   -   2   -   343  
Palakkad   14   1   -   -   -   2   -   39   -   1   -   -   2   -   59  
Malappuram   24   -   -   3   -   2   -   134   -   -   -   -   2   -   165  
Kozhikode   16   1   1   -   -   1   -   56   -   -   1   -   1   -   77  
Wayanad   3   -   -   -   -   3   -   29   -   -   -   -   1   -   36  
Kannur   9   -   -   1   -     1   96   -   3   -   -   2   -   112  
Kasargode   7   -   -     -   6   -   51   -   -   -   -   -   -   64  
Total   195   3     13   5   0   26   2   1473   2   12   2   2     13   0   1748  
 
Source: Water Authority of Kerala

190  
  Table : 6.22
  District wise Distribution of KWA Transferred to Local Bodies 2013- 14 
  Sl.  
No.   District   No. of Schemes (Rural)  
 
T otal    
Population 
Coverage  From the list of 
1050 schemes   From other 
than the list 
of 1050 
schemes  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   2   0   2   33667  
2   Kollam   2   0   2   3950  
3   Pathanamthitta   0   0   0   0  
4   Alappuzha   0   0   0   0  
5   Kottayam   4   5   9   8710  
6   Idukkii   9   0   9   32400  
7   Ern akulam   20   24   44   61630  
8   Thrissur   1   0   1   1500  
9   Palakkad   69   56   125   434300  
10   Malappuram   45   58   103   264643  
11   Kozhikkode   54   66   120   163315  
12   Wayanad   11   3   14   42645  
13   Kannur   7   2   9   5100  
14   Kasargod   14   25   39   28700  
  Total   238   239   477   1080560  
 
Source: Water Authority of Kerala

191  
  Table : 6.23
  Jalanidhi I & II  On Going water supply schemes 2013-14 
   
Sl. 
No.   District   Rural water supply schemes  
Spread between 
more than one 
panchayath   One 
panchayath   Total  
1 .     Th iruvananthapuram   -   85   85  
2 .     Kollam   1   60   61  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   -   62   62  
4 .     Alappuzha   -   0   0  
5 .     Kottayam   -   142   142  
6 .     Idukki   -   106   106  
7 .     Ernakulam   -   49   49  
8 .     Thrissur   -   527   527  
9 .     Palakkad   -   683   683  
10 .     Malappuram   -   880   880  
11 .     Kozhikode   -   738   738  
12 .     Wayanad   -   144   144  
13 .     Ka nnur   -   182   182  
14 .     Kasargode   -   201   201  
  Total   1   3859   3860  
 
   
Source: Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency

192  
  Table : 6.24 Jalanidhi I&II District wise Population covered by of water supply schemes 2013 -
14   Sl. 
No.   District   Rural 
Population 
covered   Total rural 
population as per 
2011 Census   % of Total 
rural 
population  
1   Thiruvanathapuram   17746   1528030   1.16  
2   Kollam   11581   1443363   7.76  
3   Pathanamthitta   13746   1064076   1.29  
4   Alappuzha   0   974916   0.00  
5   Kottayam   30885   1413773   2.18  
6   Idukki   17071   10554 23   1.62  
7   Ernakulam   11964   1047296   1.14  
8   Thrissur   153894   1020537   15.08  
9   Palakkad   200280   2133699   9.39  
10   Malappuram   272471   2294473   11.88  
11   Kozhikode   155598   1014765   15.33  
12   Wayanad   41002   784981   5.22  
13   Kannur   28783   882745   3..26  
14   Kasargode   35767   797424   4.49  
  Total   1090788   17455501   6.25  
 
Source: Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency

193  
   Table : 6.25 Jalanidhi I & II Water Supply Connections and Public Taps 2013-
14 
  Sl. 
No.   No. of water supply connections  
District   Domestic   Non 
Domestic   I ndustrial   Public 
Taps   Total  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   3227   1   0     3228  
2 .     Kollam   20285   0   0     20285  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   2518   0   0     2518  
4 .     Alappuzha   0   0   0   0   0  
5 .     Kottayam   5941   2   0     5943  
6 .     Idukki   3190   0   0     3190  
7 .     Ernakulam   2173   8   0     2181  
8 .     Thrissur   25655   9   0   7   25671  
9 .     Mala ppuram   49522   87   0     49609  
10 .     Kozhikode   28510   25   0     28535  
11 .     Palakkad   35205   31   0   680   35916  
12 .     Wayanad   7460   1   0   60   7521  
13 .     Kannur   5262   11   0     5273  
14 .     Kasargode   6980   0   0     6980  
  Total   195928   175   0   747   196850  
 
Source: Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency

194 
     
 
Table : 6.26    
Location of Drinking Water Source  Sl. 
No.   District   Within Premises   Near Premises   Away premises  Rural
 	
Urban
 	
Total
 	
Rural
 	
Urban
 	
Total
 	
Rural
 	
Urban
 	
Total
 
1   Thiruvananthapurm   82.1   86.1   84.2   1.7   8.6   10.1   6.2   5.3   5.7  
2   Kollam   85   86.6   85.7   9.5   10   9.7   5.4   3.4   4.6  
3   Pathanamthitta   78.9   86.1   79.7   12.2   8.5   11.8   8.9   5.4   8.5  
4   Alappuzha   70   75.1   72.7   17.9   14.3   16   12.1   10.6   11.3  
5   Kottayam   69.8   80.8   72.9   16.1   12.2   15   14.1   7   12.1  
6   Idukki   39.5   83.7   41.4   32.4   10.3   31.4   28.2   6   27.2  
7   Ernakulam   78. 1   81.3   80.03   14.8   14.9   14.9   7.1   3.7   4.8  
8   Thrissur   80.3   85.5   83.8   13.8   10.5   11.6   5.9   4   4.6  
9   Palakkad   69.3   79.2   71.7   21.1   15.8   19.8   9.6   5   8.5  
10   Malappuram   78.5   84.7   81.2   13.8   10.3   12.3   7.7   5.1   6.5  
11   Kozhikode   74   82   79.3   14.1   11.8   12.6   11.9   6.2   8.1  
1 2   Wayanad   59.7   74.1   60.2   23.8   18.8   23.7   16.5   7.2   16.1  
13   Kannur   73.1   85.7   81.1   15   9.8   11.7   11.9   4.5   7.2  
14   Kasaragod e   65.9   84.7   73   18.2   9.9   15.1   15.9   5.4   11.9  
  Kerala   72.9   83.3   77.7   16.3   11.5   14.1   10.8   5.2   8.2  
  India   35   71.2   46.6   42.9   20.7   35.8   21.1   8. 1   17.6  
 
Source: Housing census 2011

195  
   
 
Table : 6.27     Drinking Water  Availability in Kerala – Source wise  Sl.No.   District   Within 
premises   Near premises   Away  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   84   10   6  
2   Kollam   86   10   5  
3   Pathanamthitta   80   12   9  
4   Alappuzha   73   1 6   11  
5   Kottayam   73   15   12  
6   Idukki   41   31   27  
7   Ernakulam   80   15   5  
8   Thrissur   84   12   5  
9   Palakkadu   72   20   9  
10   Malappuram   81   12   7  
11   Kozhikode   79   13   8  
12   Wayanadu   60   24   16  
13   Kannur   81   12   7  
14   Kasargod   73   15   12  
  Kerala   78   14   8  
  India   47   36   18  
 
Source: Housing census 2011

196

197 
  CHAPTER  - VII 
Human Settlement 
 
  ensity  of  population  in  the  State  is  819  during  2001  census  and  860  in  2011 
census.    It  shows  that  the  density  of  population  has  increased  at  last  decades.    Similarly,  the 
population of Kerala has increased from 31841374 in 2001 census to 33406061 in 2011 census 
increased  by  4.68%.  The  analysis  of  population  growth  rate  indicates  that  Kerala  is  likely  to 
achieve  zero  population  growth  in  25  to  30  years.    The  low  population  growth  rate  with  high 
level of urbanisation will increase the scarcity of labour in agriculture   and in otherside depletion 
of natural resources due to industrialization  and infrastructure development activities. Migration 
of  rural  to  urban  area  further  added    pressure  to  the  urban  centres  for meeting  adequate  food, 
water  and  sewerage  needs.   Most  of  the  migration  to  Urban  area  is  due  to  search  of 
employment opportunities  and better facilities available in urban area. 
   The  rural  population  in  Kerala  as  per  2011  census  is  17471135  in  which  the  male 
population  is  84080547  and  the  female  population  is  9063081.  Out  of  15934926  urban 
population,  male  population  is  7619358  and  female  population  is  8315568  which  constituted  
52.29%  population rural area  and  47.70% population in urban area respectively. 
Population Census 
 As per population census 2011 the total population of Kerala is 33406061 of which male 
and  female  are  16027412 and  17378649  respectively.    The  most populated  district  in  Kerala  is 
Malappuram  in  which  4112920  followed  by  Thiruvananthapuram  is  3301427.    As  per  the 
projected figure of population in 2014 Kerala is 33941670 of which male population is 16284385 
and  female  population  is  17657285.  Age  is  one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of 
population  composition.    The  age  groups  0-14  and  above  65+  are  economically  inactive 
population.   10.77%  of  the  State  population  is  dependent  and  68.13%  of  population  is 
considered as working age population and they are economically active.

198 
  Table :   7.1  Profile of Kerala State 20
13-14  
  Sl. 
No   District   Total Land 
Area 
(Sq.km)   Number 
of 
Villages   Population 
(Lakhs)   Literacy 
Rate (%)   Cropped 
Area (in 
000 Ha.)   % of 
SMF*   Inter -
State 
Rivers   Normal 
Annual 
Rainfall 
(mm)  
1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9   10  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   2192   121   33.01   93.02   15506 5   100   0   1803.1  
2   Kollam   2492   104   26.35   94.09   161466   75   3   2491.1  
3   Pathanamthitta   2637   68   11.97   96.55   99719   75   0   2957  
4   Alappuzha   1414   91   21.28   95.72   219100   95   0   2840.5  
5   Kottayam   4358   64   19.74   97.21   15522   70   0   2931  
6   Idukki   2208   95   11.09   91.99   51652   8 0   0   3303.1  
7   Ernakulam   3068   124   32.82   95.89   7731   72   0   3028.7  
8   Thrissur   3032   254   31.21   95.08   1700.57   74   2   3063.8  
9   Palakkadu   4480   156   28.1   89.31   31471   100   0   2288.1  
10   Malappuram   3550   135   41.13   93.57   18784   100   1   2835.1  
11   Kozhikode   2344   117   30.86   95.08   300   50   0   3383.8  
12   Wayanadu   2132   49   8.17   89.03   207930   80   4   3250.9  
13   Kannur   2966   126   25.26   95.10   226570   96   0   318.7  
14   Kasargod   1991.66   127   13.07   90.09   140757   99   8   3619.9  
  Kerala   38865   1634   334   93.70   1337768   83.29   18   2924.30  
 
Source:  Agricultural Department

199  
   
Table :  7.2 District wise Population  
  Sl. 
No.   Districts   Census 2011  
Male   Female   Population   Ratio  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram  
1581678   1719749   3301427   1088  
2 .     Kollam  
1246968   1388407   2635375   1113  
3 .     Pathanamthitta  
561716   635696   1197412   1129  
4 .     Alappuzha  
1013142   1114647   2127789   1100  
5 .     Kottayam  
968289   1006262   1974551   1040  
6 .     Idukki  
552808   556166   1108974   1006  
7 .     Ernakulam  
1619557   1662831   3282388   1028  
8 .     Thrissur  
1480763   1640437   3121200   1109  
9 .     Palakkad  
1359478   1450456   2809934   1067  
10 .     Malappuram  
1960328   2152592   41 12920   1096  
11 .     Kozhikode  
1470942   1615351   3086293   1097  
12 .     Wayanad  
401684   415736   817420   1035  
13 .     Kannur  
1181446   1341557   2523003   1133  
14 .     Kasaragode  
628613   678762   1307375   1079  
    Kerala  
16027412   17378649   33406061   1084  
           
Source: Census 2011

200  
  Table :   7.3 Gender wise Population 
Sl. 
No.   District     Rural /Urban   Total Population   Male   Female  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   Total   3301427   1581678   1719749  
Rural   1529831   724864   804967  
Urban   1771596   856814   914782  
2 .     Kollam   Total   2635375   1246968   1388407  
Rural   144821 7   680687   767530  
Urban   1187158   566281   620877  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   Total   1197412   561716   635696  
Rural   1065799   499820   565979  
Urban   131613   61896   69717  
4 .     Alappuzha   Total   535958   1013142   1114647  
Rural   248616   464713   514930  
Urban   287342   548429   599717  
5 .     Ko ttayam   Total   1974551   968289   1006262  
Rural   1409158   692673   716485  
Urban   565393   275616   289777  
6 .     Idukki   Total   1108974   552808   556166  
Rural   156929   527245   529684  
Urban   52045   25563   26482  
7 .     Ernakulam   Total   3282388   1619557   1662831  
Rural   1048025   51851   529515  
Urban   2234363   1101047   1133316  
8 .     Thrissur   Total   3121200   1480763   1640437  
Rural   1024794   488303   536491  
Urban   2096406   992460   1103946  
9 .     Palakkad   Total   2809934   1359478   1450456  
Rural   2133124   1031466   1101658  
Urban   676810   328012   348798  
10 .     Malapp uram   Total   4112920   1960328   2152592  
Rural   2295709   1095308   1200401  
Urban   1817211   865020   952191  
11 .     Kozhikode   Total   3086293   1470942   1615351  
Rural   1013721   484784   528937  
Urban   2072572   986158   1086414  
12 .     Wayanad   Total   817420   401684   415736  
Rural   785840   386283   399557  
Urban   31580   15401   16179  
13 .     Kannur   Total   2523003   1181446   1341557  
Rural   882017   425682   456335  
Urban   1640986   755764   885222  
14 .     Kasaragod   Total   1307375   628613   678762  
Rural   798328   387716   410612  
Urban   509047   240897   268150  
 
KERALA   Total   33406061   16027412   17378649  
Rural   17471135   8408054   9063081  
Urban   15934926   761935   8315568  
Source: Census 2011

201  
   
Table :   7. 4   Density of Population(per Sq.Km) by residence : 2001 - 2011  
Sl. 
No.   State /Districts   Density of 
Population   
(Per Sq .Km )  -    2001   Density of Population   
(Per Sq .Km )  -    2011  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   1476   1508  
2   Kollam   1038   1061  
3   Pathanamthitta   468   452  
4   Alappuzha   1492   1504  
5   Kottayam   885   895  
6   Idukki   259   255  
7   Ernakulam   1012   1072  
8   Thrissur   981   1031  
9   Palakkad   584   62 7  
10   Malappuram   1021   1157  
11   Kozhikode   1228   1316  
12   Wayanad   366   384  
13   Kannur   812   852  
14   Kasaragod   604   657  
  Total   819   860

202  
  Table :  7. 5      District wise Sex - Ratio from 1901 - 2011  
Sl. 
No.   State/Districts   Sex - ratio (Number of Females per 1000 Males)  
1901   1911   1921   1931   1941   1951   1961   1971   1981   1991   2001   2011  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   996   990   981   1003   1017   1010   1005   1008   1030   1036   1060   1087  
2   Kollam   987   988   989   1006   1013   997   996   1000   1022   1035   1069   1113  
3   Pathanamthitta   986   987   949   975   986   996   1011   1019   1056   1062   1094   1132  
4   Alappuzha   986   987   986   997   1003   1022   1026   1025   1043   1051   1079   1100  
5   Kottayam   965   969   947   966   966   987   988   991   1001   1003   1025   1039  
6   Idukki   839   842   850   834   875   909   914   937   963   975   993   1006  
7   Ernakulam   985   990   969   994   994   1008   999   98 8   997   1000   1019   1027  
8   Thrissur   1004   1009   1051   1075   1082   1105   1093   1081   1100   1085   1092   1108  
9   Palakkad   1042   1057   1069   1079   1079   1085   1077   1056   1056   1061   1066   1067  
10   Malappuram   1017   1020   1037   1059   1062   1055   1057   1041   1052   1053   1066   1098  
11   Kozhikode   10 09   1022   1038   1032   1044   1019   1007   1004   1020   1027   1057   1098  
12   Wayanad   805   815   786   804   835   838   903   922   949   966   995   1035  
13   Kannur   1060   1079   1121   1106   1110   1074   1048   1033   1040   1049   1090   1136  
14   Kasaragod   1060   1053   1050   1040   1039   1046   1026   998   1020   1026   104 7   1080  
    Total   1004   1008   1011   1022   1027   1028   1022   1016   1032   1036   1058   1084  
  
Source: Census of India

203 
   
Table :  7. 6      Population Rural and Urban break - up  –   2011 Census  
Sl. 
No.   State /District   Total Population   Rural   Urban  
Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   3301427   724864   804967   1529831   856814   914782   1771596  
2   Kollam   2635375   680687   767530   1448217   566281   620877   1187158  
3   Pathanamthitta   1197412   499820   565979   1065799   61896   69717   131613  
4   Alappuzha   2127789   464713   514930   979643   54842 9   599717   1148146  
5   Kottayam   1974551   692673   716485   1409158   275616   289777   565393  
6   Idukki   1108974   527245   529684   1056929   25563   26482   52045  
7   Ernakulam   3282388   518510   529515   1048025   1101047   1133316   2234363  
8   Thrissur   3121200   488303   536491   1024794   992460   11 03946   2096406  
9   Palakkad   2809934   1031466   1101658   2133124   328012   348798   676810  
10   Malappuram   4112920   1095308   1200401   2295709   865020   952191   1817211  
11   Kozhikode   3086293   484784   528937   1013721   986158   1086417   2072575  
12   Wayanad   817420   386283   399557   785840   1 5401   16179   31580  
13   Kannur   2523003   425682   456335   882017   755764   885222   1640986  
14   Kasaragode   1307375   387716   410612   798328   240897   268150   509047  
    Total   33406061   8408054   9063081   17471135   7619358   8315568   15934926

204

205  
   
Table :  7. 7      District wise Population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census (General Category)  
Sl. 
No.   State/Districts   All ages   0 - 4   5 - 9  
Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   3301427   1581678   1719749   216891   110287   106604   227143   1154 87   111656  
2   Kollam   2635375   1246968   1388407   178550   90349   88201   192036   97758   94278  
3   Pathanamthitta   1197412   561716   635696   67294   34022   33272   76061   38863   37198  
4   Alappuzha   2127789   1013142   1114647   134233   68661   65572   146499   75050   71449  
5   Kottayam   1974551   968 289   1006262   120699   61477   59222   137235   69895   67340  
6   Idukki   1108974   552808   556166   73798   37443   36355   81682   41740   39942  
7   Ernakulam   3282388   1619557   1662831   214713   109407   105306   226293   115494   110799  
8   Thrissur   3121200   1480763   1640437   213202   109165   104037   21 3202   109165   104037  
9   Palakkad   2809934   1359478   1450456   214550   108923   105627   219514   111856   107658  
10   Malappuram   4112920   1960328   2152592   410106   208636   201470   407354   207693   199661  
11   Kozhikode   3086293   1470942   1615351   236427   119951   116476   247158   125979   12117 9  
12   Wayanad   817420   401684   415736   65082   33062   32020   69746   35656   34090  
13   Kannur   2523003   1181446   1341557   196829   99755   97074   196829   99755   97074  
14   Kasaragode   1307375   628613   678762   110718   56396   54322   110107   56329   53778  
  Total   33406061   16027412   17378649   24 53092   1247534   1205558   2555112   1303190   1251922

206  
   
 
Table :  7. 8      District wise population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census( General Category)  
Sl. 
No.   State/Districts   10 - 14   15 - 19   20 - 24  
Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female  
1   Thiruvananth apuram   263246   134006   129240   255313   128688   126625   266969   128374   138595  
2   Kollam   212437   108388   104049   194497   98395   96102   199854   95208   104646  
3   Pathanamthitta   89315   45295   44020   84509   43388   41121   82770   41860   40910  
4   Alappuzha   165547   84279   81268   147508   75552   71956   146758   72479   74279  
5   Kottayam   155915   79113   76802   138696   72099   66597   129329   68170   61159  
6   Idukki   91858   46763   45095   79704   40943   38761   81667   41758   39909  
7   Ernakulam   252209   128742   123467   229573   118577   110996   235855   121109   114746  
8   Thrissur   250700   12 7773   122927   239833   121875   117958   239355   116293   123062  
9   Palakkad   244128   123988   120140   228471   115748   112723   246144   119819   126325  
10   Malappuram   424031   216411   207620   393009   198452   194557   406877   194357   212520  
11   Kozhikode   266107   136111   129996   245547   125167   120380   246515   116838   129677  
12   Wayanad   77418   39481   37937   63919   32424   31495   66417   31936   34481  
13   Kannur   207988   106226   101762   195500   99226   96274   199663   94983   104680  
14   Kasaragode   121871   62341   59530   114473   57765   56708   117636   55642   61994  
  Total   2822770   143 8917   1383853   2610552   1328299   1282253   2665809   1298826   1366983

207  
   
Table :  7. 9      District wise population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census (General Category)  
Sl.  
No.   State/Districts   25 - 29   30 - 34   35 - 39  
Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   258879   120193   138686   245395   114711   130684   257169   117565   139604  
2   Kollam   199985   89590   110395   195866   88041   107825   210925   93671   117254  
3   Pathanamthitta   79258   36071   43187   78280   34401   43879   87475   37466   50009  
4   Alappuzha   150967   69517   81450   153465   70438   83027   168866   75029   93837  
5   Kottayam   129779   63724   66055   132945   63546   69399   152837   71558   81279  
6   Idukki   85747   43333   42414   83361   41198   42163   94420   45273   49147  
7   Ernakulam   238325   116775   121550   239287   116713   122574   262692   124545   138147  
8   Thris sur   226434   103198   123236   217204   97933   119271   242166   106832   135334  
9   Palakkad   242415   116092   126323   211243   100653   110590   217268   99958   117310  
10   Malappuram   364628   164498   200130   300552   132859   167693   281541   121166   160375  
11   Kozhikode   245890   109469   136421   234 874   104571   130303   242221   106829   135392  
12   Wayanad   70224   33366   36858   65644   31334   34310   67856   32250   35606  
13   Kannur   197603   86704   110899   195261   85303   109958   194385   84138   110247  
14   Kasaragode   113958   51448   62510   102124   46516   55608   99852   45539   54313  
    Total   2604092   1203978   1400114   2455501   1128217   1327284   2579673   1161819   1417854

208  
   
Table :  7. 10      District wise population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census (General Category)  
Sl. 
No.   State/Districts   40 - 44   45 - 49   50 - 54  
Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   241071   110566   130505   245603   114946   130657   202305   96880   105425  
2   Kollam   194318   87448   106870   194136   89847   104289   159033   75188   83845  
3   Pathanamthitta   88083   38251   49832   92323   41026   51297   79426   36511   42915  
4   Alappuzha   163706   74902   88804   162485   75544   86941   134926   63861   71065  
5   Kottayam   156328   75162   81166   154192   74632   79560   132330   65223   67107  
6   Idukki   88118   43562   44556   86264   42405   43859   72116   36153   35963  
7   Ernakulam   266293   130357   135936   256448   126876   129572   215067   107761   107 306  
8   Thrissur   239311   110044   129267   233160   109457   123703   194664   92929   101735  
9   Palakkad   188881   89633   99248   185219   89055   96164   145372   71048   74324  
10   Malappuram   241469   106628   134841   217799   98035   119764   172496   82690   89806  
11   Kozhikode   222484   102379   120105   210002   98203   111799   170780   82899   87881  
12   Wayanad   57693   28496   29197   55397   27117   28280   42987   21742   21245  
13   Kannur   179536   80011   99525   172802   78840   93962   142427   66823   75604  
14   Kasaragode   85207   39985   45222   82700   39615   43085   64216   31483   32733  
    Total   2412 498   1117424   1295074   2348530   1105598   1242932   1928145   931191   996954

209  
   
Table :  7. 11      District wise population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census (General Category)  
Sl. 
No.   State/Districts   55 - 59   60 - 64   65 - 69  
Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total   Male   F emale  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   188288   92084   96204   147631   70801   76830   108793   51008   57785  
2   Kollam   151920   74390   77530   117038   56968   60070   85527   39780   45747  
3   Pathanamthitta   78078   37255   40823   64733   31189   33544   48508   22448   26060  
4   Alappuzha   128419   62876   65543   1 07060   51767   55293   73923   34042   39881  
5   Kottayam   120629   60260   60369   97534   47795   49739   70803   33301   37502  
6   Idukki   60796   31521   29275   42600   21778   20822   30790   14248   16542  
7   Ernakulam   192149   97746   94403   149443   73548   75895   103428   48357   55071  
8   Thrissur   168923   82900   86023   142384   67432   74952   99052   44405   54647  
9   Palakkad   130083   63772   66311   113415   53287   60128   81894   37059   44835  
10   Malappuram   148036   73341   74695   124191   60432   63759   87856   39659   48197  
11   Kozhikode   154449   77249   77200   127863   63245   64618   86813   39360   4745 3  
12   Wayanad   36277   18451   17826   28307   14181   14126   19045   8801   10244  
13   Kannur   129416   62516   66900   108136   51107   57029   73238   32424   40814  
14   Kasaragode   54945   27166   27779   44336   21606   22730   32464   14340   18124  
    Total   1742408   861527   880881   1414671   685136   729535   1002134   459232   542902

210  
   
Table :  7. 12      District wise population in 5 yr age group  -   2011 Census  (General Category)  
Sl. 
No.   State/  
Districts   70 - 74   75 - 79   80+   Age not specified  
Total   M   F   Total   M   F   Total   M   F   Total   M   F  
  Kerala   733372   326562   406810   50136 7   208317   293050   541849   204348   337501   34486   17297   17189  
1   Kasaragode   22162   9802   12360   14054   5958   8096   14798   5745   9053   1754   937   817  
2   Kannur   55799   24181   31618   38295   15248   23047   40770   14743   26027   5761   2935   2826  
3   Wayanad   12686   5737   6949   8542   3524   5018   9482   3741   5741   698   385   313  
4   Kozhikode   60549   27251   33298   41629   17021   24608   44026   16860   27166   2959   1560   1399  
5   Malappuram   57916   25771   32145   36779   15070   21709   35037   13043   21994   3243   1587   1656  
6   Palakkad   59901   26530   33371   39364   16215   23149   38937   14287   24650   31 35   1555   1580  
7   Thrissur   77623   32997   44626   53997   21454   32543   55539   19501   36038   2963   1468   1495  
8   Ernakulam   79552   35457   44095   55915   23493   32422   62456   23351   39105   2690   1249   1441  
9   Idukki   22129   10163   11966   15168   6518   8650   17872   7510   10362   884   499   385  
10   Kot tayam   54951   25011   29940   40020   17062   22958   48781   19500   29281   1548   761   787  
11   Alappuzha   56333   24960   31373   39785   16557   23228   45145   16581   28564   2164   1047   1117  
12   Pathanamthitta   37326   17014   20312   28439   12294   16145   34377   13761   20616   1157   601   556  
13   Kollam   617 75   27341   34434   40849   17021   23828   44823   16696   28127   1806   889   917  
14   Thiruvananthapuram   74670   34347   40323   48531   20882   27649   49806   19029   30777   3724   1824   1900  
 
‘F’- Femal, ‘M’ - Male

211  
  Table :  7. 13     Age Wise, Sex Wise Population  2011   &   Mid Year  2014  
Age g roup   2011   Census  Population   Mid year population 2014  
Male   Female   Total   Male   Female   Total  
0 - 4   1247534   1205558   2453092   1267536   1224888   2492424  
5to9   1303190   1251922   2555112   1324085   1271993   2596078  
10to14   1438917   1383853   2822770   1461988   1406040   2868028  
15to19   1328299   1282253   2610552   1349595   1302813   2652408  
20to24   1298826   1366983   2665809   1319650   1388901   2708551  
25to29   1203978   1400114   2604092   1223282   1422562   2645844  
30to34   1128217   1327284   2455501   1146307   1348564   2494871  
35to39   1161819   1417854   2579673   1180447   1440587   2621034  
40to44   1117424   1295074   2412498   1135340   1315838   2451178  
45to49   1105598   1242932   2348530   1123325   1262859   2386184  
50to054   931191   996954   1928145   946121   1012939   1959060  
55to59   861527   880881   1742408   875340   895004   1770344  
60to64   68513 6   729535   1414671   696121   741232   1437353  
65to69   459232   542902   1002134   466595   551606   1018201  
70to74   326562   406810   733372   331797   413333   745130  
75to79   208317   293050   501367   211657   297748   509405  
above80   204348   337501   541849   207624   342913   550537  
age not state d   17297   17189   34486   17575   17465   35040  
TOTAL   16027412   17378649   33406061   16284385   17657285   33941670

212

213  
  Table : 7.14  District wise Fisherman Population in Kerala – Census 2011 
  Sl. 
No.   District   Marine   Inland  
 
Total  
 Male  Femal
e 	
Children
  Total   Male  	
Female
 	
Children
  Total  
1   Thiruvananthapuram  
61261   54120   48120   163501   439   509   434   1382   164883  
2   Kollam  
38210   32316   18940   89466   13215   12440   7979   33634   123100  
3   Pathanamthitta  
0   0   0   0   912   792   369   2073   2073  
4   Alappuzha  
42352   38659   261 93   107204   24491   23472   12627   60590   167794  
5   Kottayam  
0   0   0   0   9611   9124   5685   24420   24420  
6   Idukki  
0   0   0   0   261   264   166   691   691  
7   Ernakulam  
28126   26366   16463   70955   23258   22746   16428   62432   133387  
8   Thrissur  
27489   27697   15768   70954   7769   7104   4479   19352   90306  
9   Palakkadu  
0   0   0   0   847   832   855   2534   2534  
10   Malappuram  
30472   24778   22647   77897   1771   1542   834   4147   82044  
11   Kozhikode  
37345   32575   24944   94864   4090   4309   3350   11749   106613  
12   Wayanadu  
0   0   0   0   74   80   76   230   230  
13   Kannur  
20104   18269   15615   53988   2369   2505   1346   6220   60208  
14   Kasargode  
16781   15844   9795   42420   386   366   170   922   43342  
Total   302140   270624   198485   771249   89493   86085   54798   230376   1001625

214  
   
Table : 7.15   District Wise Percentage of Household by Number Of Dwelling Rooms  
 
District     Rural/  
Urban   Number of Dwelling Rooms  
No 
exclusive 
room   One 
room   Two 
rooms   Three 
rooms   Four 
rooms   Five 
rooms   Six rooms 
and above  
Thiruvananthapuram   Total   1.3   8.5   24.8   32.3   20   7.8   5.3  
Rural   1.5   8.9   25.8   32.8   20   7   4.1  
Urban   1.2   8   23.9   31.9   20.1   8.5   6.4  
Kollam   Total   1.1   7.7   26   32.5   20.6   7.3   4.7  
Rural   1.3   7.8   27.1   32.5   20.3   6.9   4.2  
Urban   1   7.7   24.6   32.5   21.1   7.8   5.3  
Pathanamthitta   Total   1.1   6.5   29.7   29.3   19.6   8.2   5.7  
Rural   1.1   6.3   30.1   29.4   19.5   8   5.5  
Urban   1.2   7.5   25.9   27.7   20.2   10   7.5  
Alappuz ha   Total   0.9   7.7   29.2   30.4   19.5   7.3   5  
Rural   1.1   8.2   30.2   30.7   18.9   6.7   4.2  
Urban   0.8   7.3   28.4   30.1   20   7.8   5.6  
Kottayam   Total   0.8   5.9   27.2   31.3   20   8.5   6.4  
Rural   0.9   6.1   27.7   31.5   19.6   8.2   6  
Urban   0.7   5.4   25.7   30.8   21   9.2   7.3  
Idukki   Total   1.2   13.4   26.7   30.3   18.1   6.3   4  
Rural   1.2   13.9   27   30.3   17.8   6.1   3.7  
Urban   0.7   3.6   19.2   30.4   24.4   10.9   10.8  
Ernakulam   Total   0.8   5.3   19.9   35.1   23.7   8.8   6.4  
Rural   0.8   5.7   21.1   34.5   23.8   8.3   5.7  
Urban   0.7   5.2   19.3   35.3   23.7   9   6.8  
 
Thrissur   Total   1.1   6.7   22.4   34 .2   22.2   8.1   5.4  
Rural   1.2   7.1   24.5   35.2   21.3   6.7   3.9  
Urban   1   6.5   21.4   33.7   22.6   8.8   6.1  
Palakkad   Total   1.5   10.3   32   30.4   16.1   5.7   4.1

215  
  Rural   1.6   10.5   32.3   30.5   15.9   5.4   3.7  
Urban   1.1   9.7   30.8   30   16.7   6.6   5.2  
Malappuram   Total   0.9   5.4   24.9   32.2   21.7   8.3   6.6  
Rural   0.1   5.8   25.8   33   21.2   7.7   5.5  
Urban   0.8   4.8   23.8   31.2   22.4   9.1   7.9  
Kozhikode   Total   1.1   6.9   28.5   34.2   18.3   6.4   4.8  
Rural   1.3   8.1   28.4   34.9   18.3   5.6   3.6  
Urban   1   6.2   28.6   33.8   18.2   6.8   5.4  
Wayanad   Total   1.3   10.3   22.3   29.7   22.6   9.1   4.7  
Rural   1.3   10.3   22   29.7   22.8   9.2   4.7  
Urban   1   10   30.3   31.1   16.9   6.7   4  
Kannur   Total   0.9   4.4   16.3   32   24.6   10.8   11.1  
Rural   1.1   5.9   17.7   32.9   24.8   9.9   7.6  
Urban   0.7   3.5   15.4   31.5   24.5   11.4   13.1  
Kasaragod   Total   1.7   9.3   23.4   29.3   20   8.8   7.5  
Rural   2.1   10 .6   24.7   29.4   19.2   7.9   6  
Urban   1.1   7.1   21.2   29.2   21.2   10.3   10  
TOTAL   Total   1.1   7.3   25.1   32.2   20.6   7.9   5.8  
Rural   1.2   8.1   26.7   32   20   7.2   4.8  
Urban   0.9   6.3   23.3   32.4   21.4   8.6   7  
 
Source : House Listing & Housing Census 2011

216  
  Table : 7.16  District wise Infant Death Rates from 2010-
14  Sl. 
No.   Districts   Rural/Urban   2010   2011   2012   2013   2014  
1   Thiruvananthapuram   Rural   0.24   1.76   2.80   1.83   0.97  
Urban   19.29   15.01   16.73   14.52   13.36  
Total   14.63   12.13   13.76   12.08   11.10  
2   Kollam   Rural   0.54   1.87   1.91   1.39   2 .81  
Urban   4.23   3.43   3.10   2.77   1.79  
Total   2.05   2.62   2.50   2.10   2.26  
3   Pathanamthitta   Rural   5.82   5.62   4.54   4.50   5.34  
Urban   4.44   5.67   5.23   5.25   5.47  
Total   5.19   5.64   4.87   4.87   5.40  
4   Alappuzha   Rural   15.54   9.78   10.21   9.07   7.10  
Urban   0.88   1.04   0. 94   0.41   0.09  
Total   5.72   4.39   4.72   4.11   3.39  
5   Kottayam   Rural   11.10   11.83   13.37   11.81   13.81  
Urban   3.14   3.44   2.00   1.17   1.48  
Total   8.43   9.24   9.88   8.29   9.81  
6   Idukki   Rural   2.46   3.50   5.54   4.41   4.84  
Urban   1.71   1.43   2.16   1.22   1.22  
Total   2.23   2.83   4.40   3.28   3.53  
7   Ernakulam   Rural   7.97   8.73   11.77   11.85   7.88  
Urban   9.12   8.12   8.44   7.24   5.76  
Total   8.93   8.22   8.97   8.06   6.15  
8   Thrissur   Rural   10.06   10.99   12.40   14.38   10.86  
Urban   5.50   7.35   6.51   5.88   5.20  
Total   6.98   8.48   8.33   8.54   7.10  
9   Palakka d   Rural   1.99   3.17   3.92   3.33   3.07  
Urban   3.63   4.08   2.78   3.30   2.67  
Total   2.93   3.69   3.30   3.31   2.87

217  
  10   Malappuram   Rural   3.08   3.87   4.36   4.42   3.83  
Urban   5.51   5.20   4.78   3.40   3.46  
Total   4.17   43.60   4.59   3.83   3.62  
11   Kozhikkode   Rural   1.42   1.59   1.67   1.57   1.16  
Urban   25.19   23.87   27.49   24.79   20.46  
Total   18.40   17.67   20.33   18.22   15.22  
12   Wayanad   Rural   3.67   6.12   5.26   4.38   4.00  
Urban   2.99   2.09   3.41   1.84   1.93  
Total   3.50   4.97   4.74   3.72   3.39  
13   Kannur   Rural   16.60   20.12   20.23   20.09   16.91  
Urban   3.36   3.08   3.50   2.66   2.32  
Total   5.61   6.03   6.42   5.48   4.77  
14   Kasaragod e   Rural   1.86   4.11   2.86   2.95   3.11  
Urban   3.96   3.88   3.30   3.12   1.74  
Total   3.10   3.97   3.16   3.06   2.21  
  Kerala   Rural   4.89   5.97   6.58   6.32   5.82  
Urban   9.10   8.45   8.86   7.73   6.81  
Total   7.42   7.53   8.02   7.22   6.45  
Source : Department of Economics & Statistics

218  
   
 Table : 7.17  Live Births, Deaths, Infant Deaths and their Rates -  2014  Sl. 
No.   Districts   Rural/ 
Urban   Births   Deaths   Infant Deaths  
Number   Rate   Number   Rate   Number   Rate  
1   Thiruvanant hapuram   Rural   9268   4.32   12244   5.71   9   0.97  
Urban   41706   35.3   18231   15.43   557   13.36  
Total   50974   15.33   30475   9.16   566   11.1  
2   Kollam   Rural   14608   6.74   14213   6.56   41   2.81  
Urban   16806   35.13   4548   9.51   30   1.79  
Total   31414   11.88   18761   7.09   71   2.26  
3   Pat hanamthitta   Rural   8234   7.71   8656   8.11   44   5.34  
Urban   8233   69.63   2615   22.11   45   5.47  
Total   16467   13.89   11271   9.5   89   5.4  
4   Alappuzha   Rural   9715   5.4   13128   7.3   69   7.1  
Urban   10924   32.45   3107   9.23   1   0.09  
Total   20639   9.66   16235   7.6   70   3.39  
5   Kottayam   Rural   18314   10.46   16231   9.27   253   13.81  
Urban   8804   38.64   2594   11.39   13   1.48  
Total   27118   13.71   18825   9.52   266   9.81  
6   Idukki   Rural   8682   8.3   5645   5.4   42   4.84  
Urban   4919   90.87   877   16.2   6   1.22  
Total   13601   12.36   6522   5.93   48   3.53  
7   Ernakulam   Rural   8 245   3.71   13346   6.01   65   7.88  
Urban   36962   32.86   15309   13.61   213   5.76  
Total   45207   13.51   28655   8.56   278   6.15  
8   Thrissur   Rural   17315   6.89   18823   7.49   188   10.86  
Urban   34225   51.6   8961   13.51   178   5.2  
Total   51540   16.23   27784   8.75   366   7.1  
 
 
9   Palakkad   Ru ral   19847   7.61   13882   5.32   61   3.07

219  
  Urban   21316   81.08   3569   13.58   57   2.67  
Total   41163   14.33   17451   6.08   118   2.87  
10   Malappuram   Rural   36992   10.41   14217   3.73   152   3.83  
Urban   52591   112.38   4849   10.36   182   3.46  
Total   92283   21.56   19066   4.45   334   3.62  
11   K ozhikkode   Rural   16388   6.83   10764   4.49   19   1.16  
Urban   43880   57.83   13717   18.08   898   20.46  
Total   60268   19.09   24481   7.75   917   15.22  
12   Wayanad   Rural   10011   12.54   3877   4.86   40   4  
Urban   4135   128.15   352   10.91   8   1.93  
Total   14146   17.03   4229   5.09   48   3.39  
13   Kannur   Rural   7866   3.59   12679   5.79   133   16.91  
Urban   39142   104.37   4737   12.63   91   2.32  
Total   47008   18.33   17416   6.79   224   4.77  
14   Kasaragod   Rural   7711   6.57   5383   4.59   24   3.11  
Urban   14919   87.18   1688   9.86   26   1.74  
Total   22630   16.83   7071   5.26   50   2.21  
  K erala   Rural   195896   7.07   163088   5.89   1140   5.82  
Urban   338562   54.14   85154   13.62   2305   6.81  
Total   534458   15.75   248242   7.31   3445   6.45  
Source : Vital Statistics 2014, DES

220

221  
   
Table : 7.18   District wise Infant Mortality Rate by Sex –  2014  Sl. 
N o.   District   Male   Female   Total  
1 .     Thiruvananthapuram   12.67   9.41   11.1  
2 .     Kollam   2.62   1.89   2.26  
3 .     Pathanamthitta   5.84   4.95   5.4  
4 .     Alappuzha   3.23   3.56   3.39  
5 .     Kottayam   8.92   10.74   9.81  
6 .     Idukki   3.33   3.73   3.53  
7 .     Ernakulam   6.92   5.36   6.15  
8 .     Thrissur   7.47   6.71   7.1  
9 .     Pa lakkad   2.87   2.86   2.87  
10 .     Malappuram   3.75   3.48   3.62  
11 .     Kozhikkode   17.07   13.27   15.22  
12 .     Wayanad   3.69   3.08   3.39  
13 .     Kannur   4.97   4.56   4.77  
14 .     Kasaragode   2.31   2.11   2.21  
Total   6.94   5.93   6.45  
Source : Vital Statistics 2014, DES

222  
   
Table : 7.19  
Vital Rates at a Glance Kerala – 2014  Year   Crude Birth 
Rate   Crude Death 
Rate   Infant 
mortality 
rate   Still Birth 
Rate   Maternal 
Mortality 
Rate  
1994   17.52   5.38   10.41   5.14   0.06  
1995   18.09   5.28   10.15   5.72   0.07  
1996   18.76   5.51   9.53   5.14   0.11  
1997   19.19   5.25   9.07   5.18   0.13  
1998   18. 43   5.79   9.00   4.65   0.12  
1999   18.32   5.73   8.27   5.25   0.00  
2000   18.01   5.42   7.10   6.43   0.02  
2001   18.13   5.70   5.43   4.65   0.01  
2002   18.05   5.73   5.54   4.90   0.13  
2003   17.16   5.97   4.40   4.02   0.24  
2004   17.15   6.06   4.25   4.68   0.23  
2005   17.34   6.33   7.35   6.27   0.64  
2006   16. 63   6.55   8.1   5.56   0.67  
2007   16.18   7.08   8.48   6.05   0.19  
2008   15.74   6.52   7.58   3.71   0.21  
2009   15.82   6.74   6.84   5.36   0.21  
2010   15.75   6.88   7.42   5.30   0.30  
2011   16.75   7.32   7.53   4.92   0.18  
2012   16.37   7.14   8.02   4.50   0.20  
2013   15.88   7.7   7.22   5.15   0.36  
2014   15.75   7.31   6.45   4.73   0.28  
Source : Vital Statistics 2014, DES
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